Jloultnj  Culture 


ARTHUR  AMBER  BRIGHAM 


uf 


Progressive 
Poultry  Culture 


A  TEXT-BOOK  OF  STUDY  AND  PRACTICE 

IN  THE  KEEPING  OF  POULTRY  FOR 

PROFIT  AND  PLEASURE 


By  ARTHUR  A.  BRIGHAM,  B.  S.,  Ph.  D. 


Fifth  Edition,  Illustrated 


CEDAR  RAPIDS,  IOWA  and  LONDON 
The  Torch  Press 

1913 


a-  v 
I    O 


COPYRIGHT,   1907 
BY  ARTHUR  A.   BRIGHAM 


FOREWORD 


This  book  was  commenced  in  New  England,  continued 
in  Maryland,  and  completed  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South 
Dakota. 

It  contains,  in  condensed  form,  the  results  of  practice, 
study,  experience,  and  observation  while  dwelling  in  the 
north,  south,  east,  and  west  of  our  great  American  country, 
and  of  experience  and  investigation  during  a  residence  of 
seven  years  in  Asia  and  Europe. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  volume  there  has  been  a  contin- 
uous, earnest  purpose  to  lay  the  foundation  for  good  poultry 
practice  in  true,  scientific  principles. 

The  treatment  of  many  of  the  subjects  has  been  influ- 
enced by  numerous  opportunities  to  study  and  solve,  co- 
operatively, the  particular  poultry  problems  of  hundreds  of 
correspondence  students  located  in  almost  all  quarters  of  the 
globe. 

The  valuable  results  of  investigations  at  several  of  the 
state  agricultural  experiment  stations  are  included  in  the 
book.  Especial  credit  should  be  given  for  the  work  of  the 
New  York  State  Station  in  determining  scientific  standards 
for  balanced  rations  of  fowls,  and  for  the  results  of  the  ex- 
periments of  the  Maine  State  Station  in  breeding  for  egg- 
production,  housing,  and  methods  of  feeding. 

Hearty  commendation  is  here  given  to  Mr.  F.  H.  Stone- 
burn,  a  former  student  of  the  author,  for  the  execution  of 
excellent  drawings  of  poultry  buildings  and  appliances,  used 
for  illustrating  several  subjects. 

Particular  mention  should  be  made  of  the  courtesy  of 
Mr.  E.  E.  Richards,  editor  and  publisher  of  the  Western 
Poultry  Journal,  in  furnishing  a  number  of  fine  illustrations 
of  typical  fowls,  the  owners  of  which  are  given  due  credit 
in  the  text. 

This  volume  will  have  fulfilled  the  purpose  of  its  publi- 
cation if  it  proves  helpful  to  many  practical  poultrymen  and 
poultrywomen,  beginners  and  veterans  alike,  and  provides 
instruction  for  numerous  students  of  poultry  culture  in  col- 
lege, school,  and  home. 

ARTHUR  A.  BRIGHAM. 
Brookings,  South  Dakota. 


364732 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I — BASIS  AND  BEGINNING  OF  THE  BUSINESS 

The  poultryman's  personality — The  basis  of  the  busi- 
ness— Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  poultry- 
keeping — Importance  of  the  calling — Purpose  and 
plan  of  poultry  production,  family  flock,  farm  flock, 

financier's  flock,  fancier's  flock.     Page 9 

CHAPTER  II — PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  POULTRY 
BREEDING 

Three  groups  of  factors  in  poultry  breeding,  inheritance, 
environment,  exercise  of  functions— Co-operation  of 
influences — Principles  of  breeding,  heredity,  atavism, 
prepotency,  correlation,  variation— In-breeding,  line- 
breeding,  cross-breeding,  grading — Methods  of  mat- 
ing. Page 27 

CHAPTER  III — INCUBATION 

Four  practical  points— Formation  of  the  egg — Freshness 
and  fertility  of  eggs — Care  of  eggs  before  hatching — 
Special  study  of  incubating  eggs — Successive  stages 
of  incubation — Natural  method  of  hatching— Sitting 
place— Setting  the  sitters— Artificial  hatching — Se- 
lecting the  machine — Incubator  room — Setting  up 

and  operating  incubator.     Page 46 

CHAPTER  IV — BROODING 

Lively  and  listless  chicks — Beginning  brooding— Chilling 
chicks —Natural  method  of  brooding— Chick  coops — 
Artificial  methods  of  brooding — Indoor  and  outdoor 
brooders— Starting  and  running  the  brooder — Feed- 
ing the  little  chicks.  Page 69 

CHAPTER  V — GROWING  CHICKENS 

Squab-broiler  chicks,  home-made  hover,  double-decker 
brooders,  feeding  and  finishing — Spring  broilers — 
Rearing  chicks  after  brooding,  separating  the  sexes- 
Preparing  the  pullets  for  exhibition,  for  laying — Soft 
roasters — Caponizing,  instruments,  operation — Feed- 
ing capons  and  pullets.  Page 87 

CHAPTER  VI — FOODS  AND  FEEDING 

The  life  blood — Nutrition — Dissection  and  study  of 
digestive  system  of  fowl — Nutrients,  mineral,  proteid, 
carbo-hydrate  and  fatty— Feed-stuffs,  grits,  grains, 
greens,  grubs— Conditions  of  feeds  and  feeding — 
Scientific  foundation  of  feeding— Table  of  principal 
poultry  feed-stuffs — Standards  for  maintenance,  lay- 
ing, growing  rations — Balancing  rations — Reckoning 

a  laying  ration — A  molting  ration.     Page 107 

CHAPTER  VII— PARASITES  AND  DISEASES 

External  parasites,  lice,  mites,  scabies — Internal  para- 
sites, gape-worms,  round  worms,  tape-worms,  para- 
sites of  oviduct— Diseases,  prevention,  treatment — 
Clinical  equipment— Diagnosis  and  directions  for 
treatment  of  diseases  and  disorders,  alphabetically 
arranged — Treatises.  Page 132 


CHAPTER  VIII— MARKETING 

The  salesman— The  business  -The  products,  eggs,  fowl- 
Improvement  in  condition,  cramming— Improve- 
ment in  selling,  retail  route,  special  city  trade,  retail 
dealers,  commission  houses,  barter  or  exchange- 
System  in  marketing,  selling  live  fowl— Dressed  fowl 
for  market,  killing,  plucking,  cooling,  dressing,  shap- 
ing, packing,  shipping.  Page 162 

CHAPTEK  IX— HOUSING  AND  FENCING 

Choice  of  location — Points  in  locating,  convenience, 
climatic  conditions,  soil  and  drainage,  water  supply, 
nearness  to  market,  transportation  facilities -Situa- 
tion of  buildings,  arrangement  of  buildings,  particular 
points  as  to  houses,  drainage,  ventilation,  tempera- 
ture, lighting,  vermin,  rodents,  interiors — Construc- 
tion materials— Planning  the  buildings,  specifica- 
tions, estimates— Constructing  the  buildings— Fur- 
nishing the  headquarters,  feed-house  and  work-shop, 
incubator  cellar,  sitting  house,  brooder  house,  hen 
houses — Ranges  and  runs,  parks,  yards,  size,  situa- 
tion and  shape,  arrangement — Fencing,  materials- 
Erecting  wire  fences — Gates— Shade— Cultivation 

and  cropping  of  yards.     Page 185 

CHAPTER  X— EXHIBITING,  SCORING,  JUDGING 

Exhibiting— Exhibitor's  educating — Forework  for  the 
fancier — Fitting  fowl  for  the  show— Shipping  to  the 
show— Care  of  birds  at  the  show — Attention  after  the 
show — Scoring  of  fowls— Applying  the  score  card- 
Judging.  Page 222 

CHAPTER  XI — RECORDS,  ACCOUNTS,  ADVERTISING 

Records,  special  breeding,  laying,  incubator,  sitting, 
brooding,  colony,  feeding,  labor  —  Poultryman's 
diary — Accounts,  single-entry  accounting,  double- 
entry  accounting — Advertising  of  market  products, 
breeding,  and  fancy  stock — Size  of  advertisement — 
Preparing*  advertisements— Answering  inquiries- 
Filling  orders — Keying — Tabulating  results — Index- 
ing inquiries.  Page 240 

CHAPTER  XII— METHODS  OF  MANAGEMENT 

General  management — Beginning  the  business,  season 
for  starting,  selecting  the  breed — Difficulties  in  man- 
agement, weather,  enemies:  rats,  mice,  cats,  dogs, 
foxes,  coyotes,  minks,  opossums,  skunks,  weasels, 
hawks,  crows,  thieves — Vices,  feather-pulling,  egg- 
eating,  drinking  and  eating  filth — Leaks  and  wastes 
of  capital,  food,  life — By-products,  feathers,  blood, 
and  offal,  droppings--Compost  heap — Economy  of 
operating  the  poultry  plant — Combining  callings, 
poultry  keeping  with  dairy,  fruit  culture,  gardening, 
bee  culture,  live  stock  farming— Rotation  of  crops 
and  poultry,  special  management  egg-farm,  hatch- 
ing chicks  to  sell,  broilers  tor  market,  soft  roasters, 
capons,  specialty  breeding.  Page 264 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY  CULTURE 


CHAPTER   I 

Basis  and  Beginning  of  the  Business 

THE  POULTRYMAN'S  PERSONALITY. 

The  first  problem  in  poultry  culture  is  the  poultry- 
man  himself.  The  solving  of  the  personal  equation  is 
the  starting  point.  It  is  well  to  turn  one's  eyes  sharply 
inward  and  submit  to  a  searching  self  examination.  An 
easy  start  is  made  if  the  individual  will  review  his  own 
pedigree,  considering  the  qualities  of  his  parents  and 
grandparents  and  studying  to  know  what  characteris- 
tics of  his  ancestors  are  decisive  parts  of  his  own  make- 
up, and  which  of  these  are  likely  to  be  conducive  or  ad- 
verse to  his  success  in  poultry  keeping. 

Next  he  impartially  recalls  to  mind  his  own  his- 
tory, his  habits  of  thought  and  action,  his  varied  ex- 
periences and  the  bearing  of  these  indications  on  his 
future.  He  then  writes  down  separately,  the  inventories 
of  his  present  qualifications  and  disqualifications  for 
the  calling  of  the  poultryman. 

In  order  that  this  taking  account  of  stock  may  be 
thorough  and  quite  complete,  let  us  consider  what  these 
qualities  may  include. 

QUALIFICATIONS    OF  THE  POULTRYMAN. 

For  the  profitable  pursuit  of  the  poultry  business 
as  a  financial  undertaking  the  poultryman  should  pos- 
sess the  qualities  which  make  the  brightest  merchant 
successful.  He  should  be  sagacious  and  shrewd,  capable 
of  planning  well  and  executing  completely.  He  should 
be  methodical,  having  a  system  developed  in  all  Its 
details.  He  must  be  alert,  ready  to  take  advantage  of 


10   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

favorable  conditions  and  prompt  to  prevent  mishaps. 
He  will  give  strict  attention  to  his  work,  push  his  plans 
forward  continually,  keep  accurate  accounts  and  person- 
ally know  how  the  business  is  paying. 

Some  of  the  qualities  of  the  old  bachelor  apply 
well  in  poultry  keeping.  The  poultryman  should  be 
decided  in  his  ways,  have  a  mind  of  his  own,  stick 
to  his  purpose  and  be  conservative  rather  than  change- 
able. 

The  poultryman  may  also  preempt  to  advantage  sev- 
eral of  the  characteristics  of  the  old  maid;  be  some- 
what fussy,  particular  as  to  associates,  economical, 
thrifty  and  persistent  along  certain  well  defined  lines. 

Then,  especially  in  hatching,  brooding  and  rearing 
chickens,  he  should  have  the  mother's  ways,  being  gentle 
towards  the  little  ones,  resourceful  in  emergencies,  pa- 
tient, cheerful,  self-sacrificing,  tireless. 

When  accidents  and  disease  afflict  the  fowls,  the 
poultry  keeper  is  lacking  if  he  has  not  some  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  grandmother.  Her  remedies  are  better 
than  the  doctor's  drugs  to  prevent  or  relieve  sickness  in 
the  feathered  family. 

The  crowning  characteristic  of  the  perfect  poul- 
tryman is  that  uncommon  quality  termed  "common 
sense." 

The  person  who  combines,  to  a  reasonable  degree, 
the  characteristics  enumerated  certainly  has  the  mak- 
ing of  a  successful  poultryman. 

FAULTS     AND    FAILINGS. 

Characteristics  which  the  poultryman  should  not 
possess  include  the  following: 

Self-conceit,   preventing  progress. 

Laziness,  defeating  good  intentions. 

Negligence,  allowing  filthiness,  parasites  and  disease 
to  prevail. 

Carelessness,  nullifying  system. 

Florgetfulness,  omitting  duties. 

Roughness,    disturbing  and    distressing   the   fowls. 

Unkindness,  causing  worry  and  fright  in  the  flocks. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE        11 

Irregularity,  destroying  orderliness. 

Ignorance  is  a  failing  which  may  be  overcome  if 
the  poultryman  will  study  and  work  to  gain  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  industry. 

The  lack  of  some  of  the  desirable  qualities  of  the 
perfect  poultryman  is  not  necessarily  crippling  if,  at 
the  same  time,  he  realizes  the  lack  and  has  an  un- 
conquerable determination  to  acquire  those  qualities. 

The  enthusiast  who  imagines  that  he  is  a  paragon 
of  a  poultryman,  sees  himself  possessed  only  of  per- 
fections, finds  no  difficulties  in  the  way  and  is  san- 
guine of  success,  will  fail. 

The  man  who  will  stand  up  before  a  mirror  long 
enough  to  look  his  double  in  the  eyes,  ask  himself  honest- 
ly what  his  feelings  are  and  answer  candidly,  has  placed 
himself  in  the  right  position  to  begin  to  develop  into 
a  practical  poultryman. 

If,  after  a  rigid  self-examination,  one  finds  that 
he  is  decidedly  unfitted  for  the  poultryman's  ocupa- 
tion  and  feels  that  he  cannot  prepare  himself  to  become 
a  poultryman,  it  is  well.  He  has  saved  himself  the  sor- 
row of  finding  it  out  later  after  bitter  experience  and 
heavy  loss. 

•  'REPARATION   OF  THE    POULTEYMAN. 

If  a  person  is  fairly  well  endowed  with  the  poul- 
tryman's qualities,  is  intensely  interested  in  poultry 
keeping  and  determined  to  become  a  successful  poultry 
culturist,  the  highest  success  can  be  won. 

Fortunate  is  the  poultryman  whose  childhood  has 
been  spent  on  a  good  farm.  (The  farm  is  the  proper 
place  for  growing  children.)  Good  indeed  is  the  outdoor 
life  —  the  plentiful  room,  the  plentitude  to  do.  Think 
of  the  farm  pets,  the  live  pets  that  delight  the  rural 
lads  and  lassies.  Wlhat  a  training  it  is  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  domestic  animals  and  how  well  one 
learns  their  characteristics  and  habits  on  the  farm. 

Then  comes  the  common  school  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion right  for  future  study.  Advantage  may  be  taken 
if  possible  of  attendance  at  a  high  school  and  the  com- 


12   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 


ing  poultryman  need  not  hesitate  to  go  to  college  or 
university  if  he  can.  If  it  is  not  his  privilege  to  gain 
the  higher  education  in  academic  halls,  he  can  never- 
theless acquire  much  knowledge  by  special  study  while 
working  to  earn  his  daily  bread.  Opportunities  for 


FIRST -BUFF- LEGHORN  •  COCK-  NEW  YORK.  -L9O5.- 


Courtesy  Tiios.  Peer. 

excellent  self-education  are  not  lacking.  "It  is  the 
depth  of  study  and  not  the  extent  of  it  that  gives  mental 
power." 

The  general  studies  of  the  poultryman  may  well 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE        13 

include,  if  convenient,  several  branches  of  science  and 
technology  in  preparation  for  his  special  study  of  poul- 
try culture. 

'  Biology  is  the  science  of  life.  Anatomy,  Physiology, 
and  Veterinary  Science  are  related  subjects.  The  poul- 
tryman  has  to  do  with  living  animals.  Too  much  can 
not  be  learned  of  their  origin,  development,  classifica- 
tion, organic  parts  and  functions,  means  and  method 
of  growth,  conditions  in  health,  causes  and  indica- 
tions of  disorder  and  disease  and  all  that  relates  to  their 
management  as  living  creatures. 

Chemistry  treats  of  the  composition  of  things  and 
of  the  changes  which  they  undergo.  A  knowledge  of 
it  helps  one  to  better  understand  foods  and  feeding,  and 
the  processes  of  digestion,  assimilation  and  nutrition. 

Physics  deals  with  the  general  properties  of  things 
and  the  influences,  such  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  grav- 
itation which  modify  these  properties  and  daily  affect 
the  fowls  and  their  surroundings. 

Mechanics  has  to  do  with  the  laws  of  matter  and 
of  motion  in  the  construction  of  things.  Some  study- 
ing of  surveying,  mechanical  drawing,  and  carpentering 
will  be  of  special  use  in  locating  the  poultry  plant,  in 
planning  buildings  and  constructing  the  same. 

These  studies  give  a  good  foundation  to  build  upon 
and  together  with  other  branches  they  contribute  to 
the  culture  of  the  man  and  to  his  preparation  for  life 
as  a  citizen  and  member  of  society. 

SPECIAL   STUDIES. 

Having  gained  a  good  understanding  of  the  funda- 
mental principles,  it  is  next  desirable  that  the  poultry- 
man  study  certain  special  things  in  preparation  for  his 
work  in  poultry  culture.  Some  of  these  special  subjects 
are  the  following: — 

Principles  of  Breeding: — It  is  well  to  learn  what 
facts  underly  the  proper  mating  and  management  of 
breeding  stock,  the  developing  of  breeds  and  varieties 
and  the  improvement  of  fowls. 

Factors  in  Feeding: — A  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 


14        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

nutrition,  of  the  proportions  of  different  nutrients  in 
balanced  rations  and  of  all  the  factors  that  insure  suc- 
cessful feeding  of  poultry,  according  to  the  purpose  Jn 
view,  is  very  desirable. 

Incubation  and  Brooding: — To  satisfactorily  hatch 
and  raise  chickens  calls  for  sharp  study  of  the  princi- 
ples which  are  involved  in  incubation  and  brooding.  The 
relations  of  life,  heat  and  moisture  in  these  processes 
are  intricate. 

Fitting  Fowls:— V&vonizing,  fattening,  and  fitting 
the  fowls  for  killing  have  to  be  understood  in  order  to 
secure  the  best  returns  in  marketing.  Properly  pre- 
paring the  birds  for  exhibition  has  much  to  do  with 
winning  the  premiums  and  making  sales  at  the  poultry 
shows. 

Marketing: — Knowledge  and  training  are  necessary 
in  the  final  operations  of  killing,  dressing  and  shipping 
preparatory  to  selling  if  financial  profit  is  to  be  gained. 

Accounts  and  Records: — To  know  the  business  aright 
and  keep  it  under  control,  the  poultryman  must  learn 
to  keep  accurate  accounts  and  for  the  best  develop- 
ment of  his  birds  and  his  business  he  should  keep  rec- 
ords for  reference. 

Advertising,  in  these  days,  is  an  art  and  in  some 
branches  of  poultry  keeping  it  is  essential  to  be  a  mas- 
ter of  this  art. 

Many  other  things  should  be  learned  and  a  special 
course  in  poultry  culture  is  the  best  plan  for  complet- 
ing the  poultryman's  preparation  for  starting  in  his  oc- 
cupation. "The  only  hope  of  understanding  is  in  do- 
ing." Accompanying  the  study  by  practice  will  clinch 
the  facts  learned.  Continued  sensible  application  of  the 
best  knowledge  makes  the  poultryman  skilful  and  suc- 
cessful. 

Let  the  poultryman  decide  to  make  poultry  his  life 
study,  using  the  instruction  gained,  profiting  by  the 
experiences  of  other  poultrymen,  acquiring  wisdom  from 
his  own  successes  and  failures  and  always  welcoming 
any  new  practical  ideas  which  will  help  on  his  poultry 
progress. 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE  ^15 

Poultry  culture  is  a  vocation  which  gives  ample 
opportunity  for  the  deepest  study,  unlimited  play  for 
the  best  talents  and  abundant  room  for  the  most  skil- 
ful practice.  The  poultryman  of  to-day,  who  is  equipped 
with  a  natural  inclination  for  the  calling,  interested  in 
the  industry,  trained  in  all  the  care  and  management  of 
the  fowls,  especially  educated  for  this  business  and  not 
afraid  to  work  hard  with  both  brain  and  brawn,  is  pre- 
pared to  act  with  intelligence  and  may  become  not  only 
a  successful  breeder  of  thoroughbred  poultry  but  also 
a  public  benefactor  and  an  honor  to  his  state  and  coun- 
try. 

BUSINESS    BASIS. 

The  basic  factors  of  the  poultry  business  are  those 
underlying  every  other  genuine  business:  Land,  Cap- 
ital and  Labor. 

Land: — There  must  be  a  place  for  the  industry, 
whatever  its  size.  Unfortunate  is  the  flock  that  has  not 
plenty  of  land.  Disorders  and  diseases  often  result 
if  the  space  allowed  is  too  confined.  If  the  fowls  do 
not  require  all  the  land  available  the  extra  area  may 
well  be  used  for  growing  crops  to  supply  food  for  the 
fowls. 

Capital: — The  funds  used  in  establishing  and  main- 
taining a  business  are  included  in  two  classes.  Fixed 
capital  is  invested  in  land,  buildings,  fences,  roads, 
drains,  water-works  and  any  permanent  improvements. 
Floating  capital  is  applied  in  the  purchase  of  fowls, 
tools,  feed-stuffs,  supplies  and  running  expenses.  It 
moves  from  one  thing  to  another  and  is  more  easily 
converted  into  cash  than  the  capital  sunk  in  fixtures. 
The  fixed  capital  does  not  yield  a  direct  income  and  the 
floating  capital  must  therefore  be  made  to  bring  returns 
for  itself  and  earn  interest  on  the  fixed  investments. 

Here  is  the  financial  reason  for  limiting  the  area 
of  land  to  actual  needs,  for  economy  in  buildings  and 
for  avoiding  expenditure  for  ornamental  purposes  to  any 
great  extent,  also  for  purchasing  or  using  for  poultry 
keeping  only  land  that  is  reasonable  in  cost. 


16        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

Further  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  poultryman 
should  not  expend  all  of  his  money  as  fixed  capital.  This 
would  cripple  him  at  the  start.  His  working  capital 
should  be  ample  for  its  purposes,  enabling  him  to  pur- 
chase supplies  in  large  quantities  for  cash,  at  lowest 
rates,  on  the  best  terms  and  placing  him  in  a  position 
to  take  advantage  of  any  condition  of  the  market  fa- 
vorable to  his  plans. 

When  the  poultryman  is  tempted  to  invest  more 
than  one-half  of  his  available  funds  as  fixed  capital 
he  should  hesitate  and  usually  halt,  A  floating  capital 
equal  in  amount  to  the  fixed  capital  signifies  an  in- 
tensive, progressive  poultry  business.  The  moveable 
money  is  kept  going  and  should  return  often  with  in- 
crease, which  means  profit. 

Labor: — Work  is  what  usually  decides,  more  than 
any  other  factor,  the  degree  of  success  and  profit  in 
poultry  farming.  If  it  is  truly  economical  labor  and 
effectively  directed,  good  results  should  follow. 

A  poultry  business  may  be  started  on  labor  alone. 
For  example,  a  farmer  boy  agrees  to  work  for  his  father, 
or  some  other  employer,  and  to  take  payment  in  fowls. 
For  more  of  his  labor  he  obtains  the  use  or  ownership  of 
sufllcient  land  on  which  to  keep  his  poultry.  For  yet 
more  work  he  secures  a  building  or  materials  for  mak- 
ing one.  He  gets  feed  and  other  supplies  in  exchange 
for  further  work.  By  his  own  efforts  he  arranges  a 
home  for  his  flock  and  cares  for  the  fowls.  He  gets 
money  for  eggs  and  chickens  and  this  capital  is  used 
to  buy  more  fowls  and  to  increase  the  business  in  other 
ways.  His  labor  has  really  produced  capital,  which  is 
represented  by  the  land,  buildings,  fowls  and  supplies 
of  which  he  is  the  owner.  This  is  a  slow  way  of  estab- 
lishing a  poultry  plant  but  It  is  a  safe  plan  and  suc- 
cessful. It  is  better  than  beginning  big  and  ending 
small. 

Head-work  is  one  kind  of  labor  that  pays  well  in 
any  undertaking.  If  the  poultryman's  brains  are  of 
good  quality  and  suftlciently  exercised  in  thinking  and 
studying  over  the  details  of  his  business,  there  will  be 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        17 

few  costly  errors  in  management,  capital  will  be  used 
with  economy  but  not  with  parsimony,  and  work  will 
be  reduced  to  the  minimum  by  convenient  arrangements 
and  labor-saving  appliances. 

It  takes  time  to  build  up  a  poultry  business  to 
successful,  profitable  condition,  but  it  can  be  done  by 
the  poultryman  having  the  right  character,  making  the 
correct  combination  of  the  foundation  factors  —  suit- 
able location,  sufficient  capital,  systematized  labor  — 
beginning  on  a  small  scale,  increasing  and  enlarging 
gradually,  profiting  by  experience  in  the  local  condi- 
tions, interested  and  earnest  in  pushing  progressively 
onward,  preventing  leaks  and  wastes  and  continually 
bending  mind  and  muscle  to  the  work. 

ADVANTAGES    AND   DISADVANTAGES    OF   POULTBY   KEEPING. 

Attractiveness: — Poultry  culture  has  peculiar  and 
particular  attractions.  Few  indeed  are  the  persons  who 
do  not  show  interest  in  the  beautiful  and  useful  farm 
fowls.  The  breeding,  raising  and  managing  of  the  birds 
is  an  occupation  enjoyed  by  people  of  both  sexes' and  of 
almost  all  .ages.  It  offers  ample  t>pportunitiy  for  the 
abundant  exercise  of  both  brains  and  muscles  by  men 
and  women  of  almost  all  conditions  of  life.  Oftentimes 
the  boys  and  girls,  especially  on  the  farms,  take  up  the 
work  of  caring  for  the  fowls  and  find  it  so  pleasant  and 
profitable  that  they  are  saved  from  the  allurements  of 
the  city  and  become  satisfied  to  follow  rural  pursuits 
for  life. 

The  fowls  are  the  friends  alike  of  the  rich  and  the 
poor.  Many  business  and  professional  men  take  up  poul- 
try culture  as  a  recreation  and  find  profit  as  well  as 
pleasure  in  their  hobby. 

The  birds  are  interesting  because  they  have  life 
and  liveliness,  because  they  respond  promptly  and  gen- 
erously to  good  care  and  management,  because  they 
are  of  beautiful  plumage,  symmetrical  shape,  graceful 
carriage,  wonderful  activity  and  great  usefulness. 

Easy  Beginning:— The  beginning  in  poultry  keeping 
can  be  and  ought  to  be  modest  and  the  growth  of  the 


18        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

business  should  be  gradual.  This  signifies  small  capital 
to  start  with  and  increase  of  investment  according  to 
experience.  A  small  flock  and  little  land  will  enable 
one  to  commence  in  the  industry. 

Prompt  Returns: — The  income  from  the  investment 
begins  to  come  quickly,  because  eggs  and  chickens  are 
soon  produced  and  are  readily  sold  at  any  time  for 
cash. 

The  Products: — Live  fowls,  dressed  poultry,  eggs 
and  feathers  are  in  constant  and  increasing  demand. 
Wild  fowls  and  other  game  are  vanishing,  the  prices 
of  meats  of  all  kinds  are  advancing  and  new  uses  are 
developing  in  the  arts  for  some  poultry  products.  Dress- 
ed fowls  and  eggs  are  concentrated  and  perishable  pro- 
ducts which  are  valuable  enough  to  stand  considerable 
expense  for  prompt  transportation  in  fresh  condition  to 
cash  customers. 

Enrichment  of  Land: — The  droppings  of  the  fowls 
are  a  rich  fertilizer  and  especially  valuable  for  use  in 
the  garden  or  orchard,  for  the  lawn  or  grass  lands  and 
for  forage  crops  and  foliage  plants. 

Utilizing  Wastes: — Many  of  the  wastes  and  by- 
products of  the  household  and  farm  are  ultilized  by  the 
fowls  and  changed  into  valuable  poultry  products. 

Healthfulness: — Poultry  keeping  is  a  decidedly 
healthful  occupation.  So  much  so  in  fact  that  it  is  fre- 
quently taken  up  by  persons  not  in  the  best  of  health 
and  sometimes  with  very  beneficial  results. 

Disadvantages: — Sometimes  the  poultry  occupation 
demands  more  hard  work  and  sacrifice  than  is  agree- 
able. Epidemic  diseases  will  occasionally  cause  de- 
struction of  the  living  creatures  in  spite  of  every  pre- 
caution. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  CALLING. 

Statistical  Studies: — Few  people  realize  the  extent 
of  the  poultry  business  in  the  world.  It  is  well  for 
the  poultryman  to  consider  some  of  the  evidences  of  the 
importance  of  his  calling. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE        19 

Statistics  are  dry  things,  but  sometimes  they  show 
results  that  are  a  revelation  to  the  uninitiated.  Ac- 
cording to  the  already  somewhat  ancient  reports  of  the 
twelfth  census,  the  value  of  the  annual  poultry  pro- 
ducts of  the  United  States  of  America  was  close  to 
$300,000,000  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Of 
the  5,739,657  farms  of  the  country  nearly  ninety  per 
cent,  included  poultry  keeping  as  a  part  of  their  in- 
dustry. 

There  was  57.8%  reported  increase  in  the  production 
of  eggs  in  the  years  from  1890  to  1900  and  yet  the  aver- 
age reported  number  of  eggs  laid  per  fowl  was  only 
5.6  dozens  for  the  year  ending  the  decade  and  clos- 
ing the  century.  This  shows  that  there  is  room  for  im- 
provement. The  average  reported  value  of  eggs  per 
dozen  was  11.2  cents,  not  quite  one  cent  a  piece.  Here 
again  is  opportunity  for  something  higher. 

The  number  of  common  domestic  fowl,  three  months 
old  and  over,  and  of  Guinea  fowl,  turkeys,  geese  and 
ducks,  kept  on  the  more  than  five  million  farms  and 
ranges,  on  June  1,  1900,  was  250,681,988,  and  these  fig- 
ures do  not  .include  the  flocks  kept  in  towns  and  on 
village  lots. 

Considering  the  immense  number  of  fowls  and  the 
enormous  reported  value  of  their  annual  products  in  this 
country  alone,  compels  us  to  realize  that  statistics  are 
staggering.  What  then  shall  we  conclude  as  to  the 
numbers  of  domestic  fowl  and  their  yearly  yield  in  the 
whole  world? 

Further  Evidences: — While  the  bulk  of  the  eggs  and 
dressed  poultry  and  feathers  for  home  use  and  for 
market,  comes  mainly  from  the  farms,  there  is  yet  fur- 
ther  striking  evidence  of  the  growing  importance  of 
poultry  in  the  development  of  the  industry  as  a  special 
business.  Capitalists  have  found  it  worth  while,  in 
many  cases,  to  invest  large  amounts  of  money  in  ex- 
tensive poultry  plants.  Poultry  farms  to-day  are  not 
a  rarity.  Intensive  poultry  practice  is  an  established 
fact. 

Consider  the  crowds  of  collectors  and  carriers  of 


20   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

poultry  products;  the  multitude  of  men  who  prepare 
poultry  for  market  and  the  army  of  packers,  shippers 
and  distributors  of  poultry  products.  The  express  com- 
panies, railways,  steamboats  and  other  transportation 
agencies  do  an  enormous  and  very  profitable  business 
as  carriers  of  poultry  and  poultry  productions.  The 
rapid  methods  of  modern  transportation  have  revolu- 
tionized poultry  keeping  as  an  industry.  The  limita- 
tions of  the  local  demand  have  little  influence  on  the 
supply.  A  large  surplus  of  eggs,  fowls  or  feathers  in 
any  locality  is  quickly  shipped  to  other  points  where 
there  is  demand  for  them  or  sent  to  storage  houses 
for  preservation  until  wanted. 

The  great  city  markets,  where  dressed  poultry  and 
eggs  are  on  sale,  show  in  an  interesting  and  convincing 
manner  the  importance  and  popularity  of  poultry  pro- 
ducts as  food  for  the  people.  Probably,  however,  one- 
half  of  the  total  product  of  the  flocks  is  consumed  in 
the  homes  of  the  producers. 

The  extent  of  the  poultry  industry  is  also  indicated 
by  the  present  development  of  allied  branches  of  busi- 
ness, such  as  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  incubators, 
brooders,  trap-nests,  shipping  and  exhibition  coops,  port- 
able hen  houses,  furnishings,  poultry  fences,  shell,  grits, 
caponizing  intruments,  etc.  There  are  more  than  one 
hundred  different  kinds  of  incubators  and  brooders  made. 
The  extensive  advertisements  of  poultry  supplies 
and  appliances  are  an  emphatic  indication  of  the  size 
of  the  business. 

The  number,  size  and  activity  of  the  poultry  asso- 
ciations and  specialty  clubs  bear  witness  to  the  interest 
taken  in  pure-bred  fowls.  The  poultry  exhibitions  of- 
fer numberless  striking  object  lessons  as  to  the  multi- 
tudes of  fanciers  and  their  flocks. 

The  poultry  books  published,  the  poultry  bulletins 
issued  by  the  United  States  government  a,nd  state  ex- 
periment stations  and  the  host  of  poultry  periodicals 
published  show  something  of  the  importance  of  the  poul- 
try industry. 

Special  poultry  schools,  poultry  courses  in  the  agri- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        21 

cultural  colleges  and  state  universities  and  poultry  lec- 
tures at  farmers'  institutes  and  other  public  meetings 
are  an  interesting  index  of  the  progress  of  poultry  hus- 
bandry. 

PUBPOSE    AND    PLAN    OF    POULTRY    PRODUCTION. 

Broadly  stated,  the  purpose  in  poultry  keeping  is 
profit  or  pleasure  or  both.  The  general  purpose  may 
lead  to  the  development  of  a  special  purpose  and  plan 
of  production  such  as  the  raising  of  a  particular  poultry 
product  to  supply  a  special  demand.  The  great  variety 
of  poultry  products  obtainable  makes  it  easy  to  select 
one  or  more  as  specialties,  for  examples: — fresh  eggs, 
squab  broilers,  soft  roasters,  newly  hatched-  chicks,  etc., 
etc. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  about  beauty  and 
utility  as  distinct  lines  in  poultry  culture  but  most  breed- 
ers are  glad  to  unite  both  of  these  qualities  in  their 
flocks. 

The  different  purposes  and  methods  in  poultry  keep- 
ing may  be  considered  under  four  heads: 

1.  The  Family  Flock: — Numerous  indeed  are  the 
little  flocks  of  fowls  kept  by  families  having  only  lim- 
ited room  for  poultry  or  caring  only  to  have  a  few  chick- 
ens on  the  place. 

The  main  purpose  is  to  have  a  certain  and  con- 
tinuous supply  of  fresh,  wholesome,  palatable  poultry 
products  for  the  family  table,  secured  at  small  expense. 
The  food  of  the  fowls  is  mostly  furnished  by  the  wastes 
of  the  household,  supplemented,  perhaps,  by  the  sur- 
plus crops  of  the  garden.  The  care  of  the  flock  takes 
but  little  of  the  time  of  some  member  of  the  family 
and  the  whole  arrangement  may  be  very  simple  and 
economical. 

Domestic  fowls  lend  themselves  to  the  successful 
carrying  out  of  this  plan  with  easy  adaptation  to  con- 
ditions and  thus  contribute  to  healthy,  inexpensive  liv- 
ing in  many  homes. 

One  of  the  strong  inducements  in  the  modern  move- 


22        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

ment  of  city  dwellers  towards  suburban  homes  is  found 
in  the  possibility  of  having  a  nice  flock  of  fowls. 

An  attractive  hen  house  with  neatly  fenced  yards, 
enclosing  a  small  flock  of  select  fowls  is  no  mean  addi- 
tion to  any  home  place. 

2.  The  Farm  Flock:— The  object  of  keeping  hens 
and  raising  chickens  on  the  farm  is  usually  to  secure 
fresh  eggs  and  dressed  fowls  for  home  use  and  for 
market. 

Someone  on  every  farm  is,  or  ought  to  be,  inter- 
ested in  the  farm  fowls.  By  the  usual  plan,  or  lack 
of  plan,  the  hens  have  to  take  care  of  themselves  and 
consequently  they  yield  only  small  returns.  Too  often 
they  are  housed  in  some  unsuitable  shed  or  out-build- 
ing or  harn  when  darkness  or  storms  keep  them  from 
roaming  at  will  over  the  premises. 

The  birds  are,  perhaps,  only  mongrels  or  scrubs 
which  the  farmer  rightly  regards  as  a  nuisance  on  the 
place.  Once  in  a  while  he  may  seek  to  improve  them 
by  bringing  in  fresh  blood  in  the  form  of  a  new  cockerel. 
About  the  only  visible  effect  of  this  spasmodic  scheme 
is  to  add  yet  greater  variety  to  the  rain-bow  hues  of 
the  wonderfully  variegated  flock. 

When  the  farmer's  wife  or  boy  becomes  interested 
in  the  chickens  there  is  cause  to  hope  for  their  future. 
Sometimes  the  flock,  in  careful  hands,  proves  to  be  the 
most  profitable  part  of  the  farm  live  stock.  The  farm- 
er, awakened  by  this  object  lesson,  becomes  interested 
himself  and  supplies  the  desired  support  for  bettering 
the  conditions  and  extending  the  poultry  industry  on 
his  farm.  Instead  of  allowing  the  birds  to  wander 
everywhere  and  foul  everything  with  their  droppings, 
a  place  is  provided  for  them  and  they  are  kept  within 
proper  bounds. 

If  a  woman  has  to  care  for  the  farm  fowls,  it  is  well 
to  have  the  hen  house  within  easy  reach  of  the  dwelling 
house  and  large  yards  enclosed  by  good  fences  should 
be  provided  for  them. 

If  a  man  or  lusty  lad  manages  the  flocks,  an  excel- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        23 

lent  plan  is  to  have  small  colony  houses  placed  in  a 
pasture  far  enough  from  the  farmstead  to  prevent  the 
birds  trespassing  in  the  garden  or  on  the  grounds  near 
the  buildings. 

The  mongrel  fowls  can  be  improved  by  breeding  the 


FIRST-COLUMBIAN-WYAKDOTTfiCOCKREL-NEWYORK-1905 


Courtesy  Aug.  D.  Arnold. 

best  of  them  with  males  of  one  pure  breed  adapted  to 
the  purpose  of  the  farm  poultryman.  Very  soon  the 
mongrels  will  be  disposed  of  and  a  flock  of  pure-bred 


24        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

fowls  started,  because  the  latter  are  far  more  profitable 
in  every  way  than  the  scrubs. 

There  will  also  be  improvement  in  the  selling  of 
the  products.  Instead  of  taking  miscellaneous  lots  of 
eggs  to  the  store  occasionally,  and  accepting  pay  in  trade, 
arrangements  will  be  made  to  deliver  the  eggs  fresh  and 
clean  at  regular  times  to  cash  customers.  The  chick- 
ens, instead  of  being  sold  alive,  to  hucksters  at  lowest 
prices,  are  dressed  neatly  and  delivered  promptly  on 
orders. 

Oftentimes  there  is  developed  considerable  business 
in  the  sale  of  eggs  for  hatching  and  surplus  stock  for 
breeding  purposes.  Thus  the  farm  poultryman  begins 
to  be  a  fancier. 

3.  The  Financier's  Flock: — The  purpose  of  the  pro- 
prietor of  a  large  poultry  business  is  mainly  financial 
profit,  though  sometimes  pleasure  or  glory  is  desired. 
The  plan  is  specialization  and  intensification  which, 
applied  to  certain  branches  of  business,  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  modern  methods  of  securing  success. 

Men  of  means  and  experience  in  poultry  culture 
have  established  large  poultry  farms  which  are  devoted 
exclusively  to  this  intensive  form  of  farming. 

Wealthy  men,  lacking  experience  in  the  poultry 
business,  have  also  invested  capital  ill-advisedly,  often 
lavishly,  in  elaborate  poultry  plants  and  these  have 
proved  foolish  failures. 

Success  on  large  poultry  farms  has  been  due  to 
business  sagacity,  sufficient  capital,  systematic  methods, 
well  directed  labor,  careful  accounting,  progressive  push- 
ing. Failures  on  large  poultry  plants  have  resulted 
from  mistakes  in  location,  faulty  buildings,  ill  propor- 
tion between  fixed  and  floating  capital,  ignorance,  mis- 
management, wastes.  Some  persons  seem  not  to  have 
realized,  until  compelled  to  by  sad  experience,  that  th3 
causes  of  failure  in  the  poultry  business  are  the  same 
as  those  which  bring  disaster  in  any  other  business. 

4.  The  Fancier's  Flock: — The  purpose  of  the  fancier 
is  sometimes  just  joy  and  recreation,  but  usually  he  has 
an  eye  to  profit. 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   25 

Breeding  fancy  fowls  is  artistic  agriculture  whether 
carried  on  in  city,  town,  village  or  rural  home.  Keep- 
ing the  beautiful  birds  is  the  poetry  of  poultry  produc- 
tion. 

Every  one  should  have  a  hobby  and  ride  it  hard. 
When  the  choice  falls  on  pure-bred  fowls  they  and  their 
possessor  ought  to  be  satisfied.  The  best  qualities  of 
the  man  are  brought  to  the  fore  by  the  thinking,  study- 
ing and  working  necessary  to  manipulate  the  natural 
forces  involved  in  producing  the  beautiful  plumage,  at- 
tractive appendages,  and  symmetrical  shapeliness  of  his 
thoroughbreds. 

The  fancier  sets  high  before  him  a  standard  of 
perfection  and  strives  to  bring  his  fowls  up  to  it.  His 
best  birds  are  exhibited  in  competition  with  other  fine 
bred  birds  at  the  poultry  shows  and  prizes  are  the  re- 
ward of  the  most  successful  breeding. 

Some  fanciers  do  not  send  their  birds  to  exhibi- 
tions but  keep  them  for  pastime,  or  for  the  sake  of 
their  superior  products. 

Usually  fanciers  select  and  seek  to  improve  fowls  of 
some  well  established  breed.  Sometimes  they  take  up 
new  breeds  and  occasionally  a  fancier  seeks  to  develop 
a  new  variety. 

Poultry  fanciers  in  many  countries  have  their  na- 
tional associations  and  the  breeders  of  favorite  varieties 
of  fowls  unite  in  specialty  clubs. 

The  most  successful  fanciers  have  started  with  but 
few  birds  and  have  bred  for  quality  rather  than  quan- 
tity of  their  feathered  pets.  They  have  proved  that 
neither  large  area  nor  great  capital  is  necessary  to 
success. 

Great  financial  gain  has  been  the  reward  of  the 
earnest  work  of  some  breeders  of  fancy  fowls. 

Progress  in  poultry  culture  along  both  fancy  and 
utility  lines  has  resulted  from  the  splendid  work  of 
brainy  breeders  of  thoroughbred  fowls. 

Fowls  left  to  shift  for  themselves  tend  to  become 
less  and  less  beautiful  and  useful.  Human  interest  and 
earnestness  are  necessary  to  counteract  this  tendency. 


26   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

By  careful  selection,  proper  mating  and  skilful 
management  the  best  traits  of  the  breed  are  retained 
and  increased  in  excellence.  Even  new  and  valuable 
qualities  may  be  developed  and  fixed  in  the  fowls.  The 
effect  for  improvement  on  the  world's  numberless  flocks 
should  be  large  and  lasting. 


S.    C.   BROWN    LEGHORNS 
Courtesy  W.  G.  Warnock 


CHAPTER  II 
The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Breeding 

Selection  is  the  key  to  successful  and  satisfactory 
breeding  of  poultry.  In  order  to  make  proper  selec- 
tions, in  breeding  domestic  fowls  for  his  purposes,  the 
poultryman  should  have  a  thorough  understanding  of 
the'  underlying  facts  and  exercise  his  brain  powers  to 
the  fullest  extent  possible.  His  knowledge  should  ex- 
tend to  all  of  the  influences  and  conditions  affecting  the 
breeding  of  the  birds. 

THE  FACTOBS  IN  POULTRY  BREEDING. 

The  numerous  influences  involved  in  the  propagat- 
ing of  fowls  may  all  be  included  in  three  groups:  first 
those  relating  to  Inheritance;  second,  those  which  con- 
stitute Environment;  third,  those  which  are  the  result 
of  Exercise  of  Functions. 

1.  Inheritance  or  Heredity  includes  all  the  powers, 
qualities  and  characteristics  which  the  parents  transmit 
to  the  offspring  through  the  germ-cell  of  the  egg.  The 
germ-cell  in  a  hen's  egg  is  easily  observed  if  one  will 
gently  make  an  opening  through  the  shell,  about  midway 
on  one  side  of  the  egg,  and  then  hold  the  egg  with  this 
opening  uppermost.  The  yolk  of  the  egg  floats  to  the 
top  and  carries,  imbedded  in  its  upper  surface,  a  whitish 
circular  spot  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
This  spot  is  the  gern>cell,  which  in  a  fertile  egg,  sub- 
jected1 to  the  influences  of  incubation,  develops  as  an 
embryo  and,  if  all  goes  well,  hatches  into  a  live  chick. 
Wonderful  indeed  is  the  working  of  this  law  of  life, 
which  insures  the  conveyance  of  the  combined  or  ming- 
led qualities  of  the  hen  that  laid  the  egg  and  of  the 
male  bird  that  mated  with  her,  to  the  little  chick  hatched 
from  the  egg. 

This  powerful  influence  of  inheritance  extends  to 


28        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

the  size  and  shape  of  body  and  of  the  different  body- 
parts,  to  the  coloration  of  the  feathers,  to  the  capabil- 
ities of  the  digestive  system,  to  the  capacity  of  the 
breathing  apparatus,  to  the  heart-development,  to  the 
quality  of  the  bones  and  muscles,  to  the  keenness  of 
vision,  to  the  texture  of  the  comb  and  wattles,  to  the 
foldings  of  the  brain.  It  affects  the  new  creature's 
bodily  strength  or  weakness,  its  possible  length  of  life, 
its  breeding  powers  -(egg-production)  and  even  the 
chicken's  disposition  and  habits.  Unfortunately  poor 
or  bad  qualities  are  inherited  as  readily  as  good  ones. 

Disease  is  not  directly  transmitted  but  conditions 
inviting  or  favoring  the  development  of  disease-germs  in 
the  'body  may  be  inherited1.  For  example  the  bird  which 
has  by  inheritance,  weak  Lungs  or  poor  digestive  powers 
is  very  likely  to  succumb  to  disease  attacking  these 
parts  of  the  body  at  some  period  in  its  life. 

This  hereditary  influence  of  the  parents  has  much  to 
do  with  the  start  in  life  not  only  of  the  fowls  but  also 
of  the  poultryman  himself,  for  these  facts  apply  to  the 
human  family  as  well  as  to  our  feathered  pets. 

The  laws  of  inheritance  hold  the  animal  kingdom 
to  an  orderly,  systematic  development  and  procession. 
The  poultryman  is  thereby  assured  of  regularity  in  the 
results  of  his  matings  of  fine  fowls.  The  eggs  of  these 
birds  will  certainly  produce  their  kind  and  not  hatch 
into  sheep  or  swine  or  snakes.  Nature  is  not  fickle 
and  as  a  rule  she  forbids  the  formation  of  freaks. 

2.  Environment.  As  soon  as  an  egg  begins  to  be 
incubated,  influences  surround  it  which  are  very  differ- 
ent from  those  of  the  group  just  considered.  Inheri- 
tance acts  from  within  and  we  wonder  at  the  power  of 
these  life  influences  enclosed  within  a  minute  cell. 
Other  influences,  however,  act  upon  the  embryo  from 
the  outside.  Temperature,  moisture,  air  all  affect  the 
growth  of  the  embryo  chick  in  the  incubating  egg.  Af- 
ter hatching,  these  surounding  influences  increase  and 
become  more  potent  in  the  life  of  the  chick.  Shelter, 
food  and  all  that  is  signified  by  the  domestication  and 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        29 

care  of  the  fowls  have  much  to  do  with  their  welfare  and 
future  usefulness  as  breeding  stock.  Summed  up,  these 
surrounding  influences  should  result  in  continual  com- 
fort for  the  fowls. 

Conditions  of  environment  causing  discomfort  are 
sure  to  check  the  development  and  growth  and  result  in 
impaired  breeding  quality.  Unhealthy  surrounding  con- 
ditions may  induce  disease  and  destroy  breeding  power. 

Much,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  selection  and 
maintenance  of  right  conditions  of  environment  for  poul- 
try. Here  is  ample  opportunity  for  the  poultry  breeder 
to  exert  his  power,  for  most  of  the  surounding  condi- 
tions are  under  his  control.  Suppose,  for  example,  that 
he  has  fifty  little  chicks  which  he  is  rearing  in  a  brood- 
er. If  he  selects  and  maintains  for  them  a  continuous 
comfortable  temperature,  other  conditions  being  also 
favorable,  the  chicks  grow  thriftily  and  bring  both 
pleasure  and  profit  to  their  owner.  If,  however,  the 
other  conditions  remaining  favorable,  he,  by  careless- 
ness or  accident,  permits  the  chicks  to  get  chilled,  this 
one  item  of  the  environment  being  wrong,  trouble  be- 
gins, digestive  disorder  very  likely  follows,  growth  is 
checked  or  halted,  many  of  the  chicks  die  and  those 
remaining  alive  do  not  prosper. 

The  food  might  not,  at  first  thought,  seem  to  be 
one  of  the  conditions  of  environment.  It  does  not  sur- 
round the  fowl,  rather  the  fowl  surrounds  it.  Con- 
sider, however,  that  the  digestive  tract  is  really  a  long 
tube  extending  through  the  bird's  body.  It  has  a  lin- 
ing or  skin  on  the  inside.  The  organs  and  parts  of  the 
bird  really  lie  between  this  inner  skin  and  the  outer 
skin  of  the  body.  Even  the  food  in  the  digestive  canal 
may  be  considered  as  outside  of  the  vital  parts  of  the 
animal,  i.  e.  separated  from  them  by  the  lining  of  the 
canal.  Certainly  nothing  should  be  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  outside  or  inside  lining  of  the  bird 
which  would  inflict  injury. 

One  of  the  most  important  items  of  environment 
is  the  foodi,  which  should  be  wholesome,  healthful, 


30        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

nourishing  and  supplied  in  properly  balanced  rations. 
Domestic  fowls  are  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  the 
poultryman  for  their  food  supply  in  respect  to  both 
quality  and  quantity  and  this  is  one  of  his  most  im- 
portant means  of  influence  in  the  management  of  his 
breeding  stock. 

3.  Exercise  of  Functions.  As  soon  as  the  chick 
develops  organs  for  blood  circulation,  food  digestion  and 
muscles  for  moving,  there  comes  into  play  another  set 
of  influences  in  the  life  of  the  creature.  It  begins  to 
use  its  powers  and  the  exercise  of  the  parts  tends  to 
increase  their  strength  and  capacity.  Healthy,  natural 
exercise  of  the  functions  of  the  bird's  bodly  tends  to 
the  best  development  and  maintenance  of  these  func- 
tions. Excessive  use  or  abuse  of  any  of  these  powers 
tends  to  react  disastrously  upon  the  functions  and  upon 
the  bird's  whole  organism.  This  matter  is  very  largely 
within  the  control  of  the  poultry  breeder.  For  example 
he  may,  by  early  hatching  and  high  feeding,  cause  his 
pullets  to  develop  raipidly,  and  begin  laying  while  still 
quite  young.  The  eggs  of  these  precocious  pullets  will 
be  found  lacking  in  hatching  quality  to  a  considerable 
degree  if  the  attempt  is  ma'de  to  incubate  them.  If 
some  of  the  eggs  yield  chicks  they  will  usually  prove 
to  be  weaklings.  Moreover  the  pullets,  after  laying 
a  while,  will  very  likely  begin  to  molt  and  delay  further 
egg-production  until  the  following  spring, .  the  natural 
nesting  time  of  the  birds.  Thus  even  in  a  commercial 
way,  the  pullets  prove  the  futility  of  the  poultryman's 
plan  for  forcing  egg-production  at  the  expense  of  the 
development  of  the  other  functions. 

Again  the  poultryman  may,  by  close  confinement  of 
his  adult  fowls  and  by  too  generous  a  diet,  especially 
of  Indian  corn,  induce  habits  of  laziness  in  his  flock. 
The  fowls  lay  on  fat,  their  eggs  become  infertile,  later 
egg-laying,  stops  altogether,  thfe  birds  stand  about  in 
idleness,  they  get  listless,  their  systems  become  clogged, 
they  topple  over  and  die  of  apoplexy.  An  entirely 
different  result  is  secured  simply  by  compelling  the  hens 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        31 

to  take  bodily  exercise.  By  making  them  scratch  for 
at  least  a  part  of  their  living,  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  is  increased,  digestion  is  improved,  there  is  flesh 
formation  in  place  of  fat  deposition  and'  active  opera- 
tion of  all  the  bodily  functions.  The  fowls  are  lively, 
sprightly  and  healthy.  Their  eggs  .prove  to  be  fertile 
and  yield  chicks  which  are  vigorous,  thrifty  growers. 

CO-OPEBATION  OF  INFLUENCES. 

The  influences  of  the  three  great  groups  do  not 
act  separately  and  independently  in  the  development, 
growth  and'  breeding  of  the  fowls.  Rather  are  they 
commingled  and  combined  in  their  action  so  that  it  is 
very  difficult  and  oftimes  impossible  to  determine  just 
what  influences  have  produced  certain  results  in  the 
animal  organism. 

Evidently  there  are  some  influences  that  the  poul- 
tryman  cannot  control  and  others  which  are  only  par- 
tially under  his  command,  but  there  remain  many  con- 
ditions which  are  entirely  within  his  power  to  regu- 
late. His  part  in  the  breeding  of  the  beautiful  and 
useful  birds  is  to  exercise  his  power  of  selection  as 
applied  first  to  the  parent  birds  which  are  the  medium 
of  hereditary  influences,  second  to  the  surrounding  con- 
ditions of  the  breeding  stock  and  the  progeny  and  third 
to  the  management  of  the  fowls  in  the  use  of  their  func- 
tions and  productive  powers. 

Considering  what  a  multitude  of  agencies  are  co- 
operating in  the  breeding  and  growing  of  a  chicken, 
the  poultry  breeder  is  compelled  to  acknowledge  that 
he  can  never  know  these  factors  too  well  if  he  is  to 
learn  to  manage  them  successfully  for  producing  per- 
fect poultry. 

Many  men  have  given  earnest  thought  and  careful 
study  to  the  problems  of  stock-breeding.  Some  of  the 
facts  developed  in  the  experience  of  breeders  of  domestic 
animals  in  the  past,  are  stated  in  the  following  brief 
explanations  of  what  are  sometimes  termed 


32        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  BREEDING. 

Heredity,  Only  a  little  experience  in  breeding  poul- 
try is  sufficient  to  convince  the  breeder  that  heredity 
both  helps  and  hinders  his  operations.  He  learns  in 
a  very  practical  way  that  he  has  to  reckon  with  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  inheritance  of  faults  as  well  as  desirable 
qualities  of  parents  by  the  offspring. 

Heredity  has  been  denned  as  "the  inheritance  by 
the  offspring  of  the  characters  of  the  parents,  at  the 
time  of  procreation."  The  parents  repeat  themselves 
in  their  descendants. 

Of  all  the  qualities  of  the  parents  transmitted  to 
their  offspring  a  portion  only  are  apparent  to  our  senses. 
Other  characteristics  are  not  so  evident  or  escape  our 
means  of  observation. 

To  explain  the  degrees  of  conspicuousness  of  par- 
ental characteristics  in  the  offspring  two  terms  have 
been  used  —  dominant  and  latent.  Dominant  characters 
are  those  which  are  very  apparent  in  the  offspring. 
Latent  characters  are  such  as  apparently  disappear,  be- 
come obscured,  or  hidden  from  our  observation.  Domi- 
nant characters  in  one  generation  may  become  latent 
in  the  offspring  of  a  later  generation.  Latent  char- 
acters may  reappear  after  one  or  more,  generations, 
sometimes  becoming  dominant. 

In  the  mingling  of  the  parental  qualities  in  differ- 
ent offspring  of  the  same  parentage,  there  is  never  the 
same  arrangement  of  dominant  and  latent  characters. 
No  two  chicks  of  the  same  parentage  are  exactly  alike. 
There  is  a  rearrangement  each  time,  which  brings  out 
qualities  more  or  less  dominant  or  conspicuous  and  the 
combination  gives  to  each  offspring  its  own  individu- 
ality. 

Atavism.  If  characters  become  dominant  which 
were  latent  in  the  parents  but  apparent  in  a  previous 
generation  there  is  said  to  be  a  reversion  or  "throw- 
ing back."  The  offspring  inherits  through  the  parents 
some  evident  characteristic  quality  of  a  grandparent  or 
of  some  more  ancient  ancestor.  The  scientific  term  of 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   33 

this  form  of  Heredity  is  Atavism  (from  a  Latin  word 
meaning  ancestor). 

Here  is  one  of  the  dangers  of  the  ambitious  poultry 
breeder.  He  seeks  to  make  rapid  progress.  He  wish- 
es to  advance  continuously  and  swiftly  in  perfecting 
his  pets.  He  makes  matings  of  birds  uniting  the  char- 
acteristics which  he  most  desires  to  develop  in  his 
chicks.  In  so  doing  he,  perhaps,  brings  together  birds 
possessing  some  strong  opposing  characteristics.  In- 
stead of  commingling  their  characters  to  produce  the 
desired  composite  chick  their  dominant  characters  dis- 
appear and  a  long  latent  character  of  the  original  type 
of  the  breed  or  of  some  almost  forgotten  ancestor  be- 
comes dominant  in  the  progeny. 

The  cautious,  careful,  conservative  poultry  breeder 
makes  haste  slowly  and  avoids  these  breaks  in  breeding 
which  arise  because  of  the  action  of  Atavism. 

Prepotency.  The  poultryman  who  patiently  persists 
in  selecting  and  mating  together  his  very  best  birds, 
with  the  definite  and  decided  purpose  to  improve  cer- 
tain characteristics,  finds  that,  instead  of  throwing  back, 
the  offspring  strike  forward.  Pairing  together  two 

fowls  of  like  good  quality,  if  they  do  not  possess  an- 
tagonistic qualities  or  powers,  usually  insures  the  devel- 
opment of  the  good  quality  in  the  offspring  to  a  greater 
degree  than  was  apparent  in  either  of  the  parents. 

By  mating  together  birds  of  similar  excellent  quali- 
ties the  power  of  transmitting  those  qualities  also  is 
usually  increased.  By  continuing  this  process  genera- 
tion after  generation,  in  a  strain  of  fowls,  the  valuable 
quality  becomes  more  and  more  a  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  the  family. 

In  pursuing  such  a  policy,  there  are  sure  to  arise 
among  the  progeny,  individual  birds,  which  not  only 
possess  the  desirable  good  quality  but  also  show  in- 
creased and  certain  power  of  transmitting  the  quality 
to  their  get.  They  are  prepotent,  i.  e.  very  powerful  in 
this  respect.  Such  special,  emphatic  power  is  a  very 
valuable  possession  and  the  poultryman  should  cherish 


34        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

such  birds  as  of  more  than  usual  value  in  his  breeding 
pens. 

A  prepotent  male  or  female  fowl  may  transmit  pre- 
potent quality  to  successive  generations  and  numerous 
descendents  so  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  it  becomes 
the  leading  characteristic  of  a  variety  or  breed  of  poul- 
try. 

Prepotency  in  the  transmission  of  certain  valuable 
characters  is  the  quality  which  causes  pure-bred  male 
birds  to  be  purchased  so  extensively  for  use  in  cross- 
ing upon  common  farm  fowls  for  the  improvement  of  the 
latter. 

Because  a  bird  is  purebred,  however,  one  should 
not  conclude  that  it  is  necessarily  and  always  pre- 
potent. There  are  degrees  in  prepotency.  More  than 
one  bird  of  good)  pedigree  has  proved  that  its  family 
characteristic  of  prepotency  may  become  latent.  Ac- 
tual testing  of  a  bird  by  use  in  breeding,  will  alone  de- 
cide what  degree  of  prepotency  is  possessed.  When 
a  bird  is  found  to  be  especially  prepotent  in  transmit- 
ting to  progeny  a  certain  desirable  quality,  such  as  large 
egg-production,  rapid  growth,  early  maturity,  easy  fat- 
tening, typical  plumage,  etc.,  such  bird  should  be  care- 
fully controlled  and  kept  for  breeding  as  long  as  prac- 
tically possible.  The  possession  of  a  very  useful  qual- 
ity and  of  prepotency  in  its  transmission  to  offspring 
is  the  most  valuable  combination  in  poultry  breeding. 

Correlation.  It  is  possible  to  develop  the  prepo- 
tency of  a  prominent  quality  to  excess.  For  example, 
rapid  and  long  continued  egg-production  may  be  so 
encouraged  that  the  bird  bends  all  her  energies  to  the 
exercise  of  this  function,  becomes  unbalanced  and  ex- 
hausts her  vital  powers  to  such  an  extent  that  death 
ensues.  On  the  other  hand  early  maturity  and  tha 
fattening  quality  may  become  so  developed  in  a  strain 
of  fowls  that  the  breeding  powers  are  eclipsed,  the 
internal  organs  become  coated  with  fat,  globules  of  fat 
replace  the  egg-clusters  in  the  ovary  and  fatty  degen- 
eration goes  on  until  the  heart  fails  and  the  end  comes. 
Thus  if  the  exercise  of  one  function  is  pushed  to  the 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   35 

extreme  other  functions  are  liable  to  become  impaired. 
The  different  parts  of  the  bird's  body  are  not  indepen- 
dent of  each  other.  There  is  an  interdependence  a  re- 
lationship together  among  the  body-organs.  This  is  ex- 
pressed as  Correlation  of  Parts.  Strict  attention  to  this 
fact  is  necessary  in  order  to  sustain  the  proper  balance 
of  the  parts  and  maintain  a  natural,  healthy  co-opera- 
tion of  the  functions  of  the  fowl. 

The  correlations  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body 
are  not  equal.  Certain  organs  are  more  closely  related 
together  than  others.  The  dependence  of  the  organs  of 
blood  circulation  upon  the  digestive  system  is  evident 
and  the  relation  of  the  blood  circulation  to  all  the 
parts  of  the  body  in  their  process  of  growth,  repair 
and  production  need  not  be  emphasized.  There  are  also 
correlations  which,  if  carefully  studied  out  by  the  poul- 
tryman,  enable  him  to  judge  of  certain  inward  parts 
or  functions  by  the  appearance  of  correlated  outward 
or  visible  parts.  The  most  common  illustration  of  this 
fact  is  found  in  the  striking  fullness  and  redness  of 
the  combs  and.  wattles  of  a  cockerel  in  the  full  exercise 
of  his  powers  during  the  breeding  season  as  compared 
with  the  head  appendages  of  a  capon.  The  shrunken, 
insignificant,  pale  comb  of  the  caponized  bird  testifies 
to  the  loss  of  breeding  power  in  a  very  decided  man- 
ner. Much  the  same  difference  of  appearance  is  noticed 
between  a  pullet  that  is  laying  well  and  a  hen  that  is 
in  the  molt. 

The  poultryman  who  would  team  at  first  hand,  all 
that  he  can  of  the  correlations  of  parts  in  fowls,  will 
scrutinize  frequently  the  outward  appearance  of  his 
birds  and  whenever  he  kills  a  fowl  will  observe  the 
appearance  of  the  internal  parts  as  to  size,  develop- 
ment and  condition.  Studying  thus  the  organs  them- 
selves and  searching  out  their  relationships  he  will  come 
to  know  from  the  outward  conditions  what  are  the  in- 
ward conditions  of  his  birds  both  in  health  and  dis- 
ease. 

Variation.  Although  we  try  to  breed  our  birds  to 
a  standard  type  and  strive  to  get  them  as  like  as  peas 


36        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


in  a  pod,  yet  no  two  birds  are  ever  exactly  alike.  That 
is  one  thing  that  makes  them  interesting.  In  each 
there  is  a  somewhat  different  arrangement  of  the  domi- 
nant and  latent  qualities  so  that  we  recognize  individ- 
uality. 

If  the  parent  birds  produced  chickens  which  at 
maturity,  would  be  just  like  themselves  and  all  alike 
among  themselves  there  would  be  an  end  of  improve- 
ment. Fortunately  for  the  enterprising  and  progressive 
poultry  breeder,  all  the  birds  of  one  breed;  or  even  of 
one  family  are  not  cast  in  exactly  the  same  mold.  Al- 
though the  general  characteristics  of  the  parents  are 
inherited  yet  there  are  often  decided  variations  in  the 
offspring.  Some  of  these  are  explainable  by  Atavism 
but  others  and  especially  such  as  indicate  improvement 
in  qualities  of  use  to  the  poultryman,  are  brought  about 
by  conditions  of  Environment  and  Exercise  which  are 
largely  within  the  control  of  the  breeder. 

When  animals  are  brought  into  surroundings  dif- 
fering from  those  of  their  previous  environment,  they 
sometimes  find  themselves  not  fully  adapted  to  the  new 
conditions.  If  changes  in  themselves  are  necessary  in 
order  to  exist  under  the  circumstances,  they  yield  or 
try  to  yield  to  the  influences.  Variations  result  in  their 
organisms  or  in  their  offspring  which  better  adapt  them 
to  live  under  the  changed  conditions. 

Domestic  birds  yield  more  readily  than  wild  birds 
to  the  influences  tending  to  cause  variation. 

The  causes  of  variations  more  or  less  within  the 
controlling  power  of  the  poultryman  include  those  of 
climate,  nourishment  and  exercise. 

By  a  careful  selection  and  combination  of  influ- 
ences steadily  continued  in  their  application,  the  birds, 
in  some  cases  and  after  a  time,  are  induced  to  vary. 
By  keeping  the  conditions  constant  long  enough  the 
variation  becomes  a  fixed  characteristic  of  individuals. 
Then  by  selection  of  the  individuals  which  show  the 
desired  variation  most  decidedly,  and  breeding  from 
them,  certain  variations  at  least  appear  to  become  trans- 
missible by  inheritance. 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   37 

It  is  thus  that  the  poultryman,  calling  to  his  aid 
all  of  the  influences  of  Environment,  Exercise  and 
Heredity  that  he  can,  seeks  to  develop  a  strain  or  family 
of  fowls  that  will  lay  eggs  out  of  season  and  yield  many 
more  eggs  than  usually  are  produced.  It  is  consider- 
able of  a  step  in  variation  for  a  fowl  to  lay  ten  dozens 
of  eggs  instead  of  one  or  two  dozens  in  a  year  and  some 
further  variation  has  taken  place  when  the  fowl  lays 
over  two  hundred  eggs  annually. 

It  has  taken  a  long  time  to  produce  the  variations 
expressed  by  the  many  breeds  and  varieties  of  do- 
mestic fowls  existing  to-day  which  originally  came 
from  the  little  wild  jungle  fowl  of  India. 

Variation  may  operate  against  the  desires  of  the 
poultryman  bringing  him  disappointment  rather  than 
delight.  His  birds  may  deteriorate  rather  than  improve 
in  useful  traits,  especially  if,  through  his  carelessness 
or  ignorance,  the  surroundings  of  his  flock  are  unfavor- 
able. Such  influences  tend  to  cause  variations  which 
detract  from  the  profits  of  poultry  keeping  although 
they  may  enable  the  fowls  themselves  to  survive  rather 
than  succomb  to  their  environment. 

Climate.  Temperature  influences  the  fowls  and 
gradually  causes  variation.  Warmth  and  consequent 
comfort,  resulting  from  proper  shelter  or  a  congenial 
climate,  encourages  breeding  and  hence  tends  to  increase 
of  numbers.  Cold  weather  has  an  opposite  effect,  tend- 
ing to  prevent  or  postpone  propagation.  Here  is  an 
important  reason  why  hens '  hesitate  to  lay  eggs  in  win- 
ter. Egg-laying  is  an  act  of  breeding.  Each  egg  is 
intended  to  produce  a  chick.  When  coldness  causes 
discomfort  to  the  fowl  it  stops  breeding  operations  and 
devotes  its  energies  to  gaining  body  comfort.  The  blood 
instead  of  going  to  manufacture  eggs,  furnishes  more 
fuel  to  keep  up  the  body  temperature. 

When  coldness  and  dampness  both  afflict  the  fowls 
and  lack  of  ventilation  cuts  off  the  liberal  supply  of 
oxygen,  the  combination  of  evil  influences  is  usually 
fatal.  A  new  hen-house,  tightly  built,  not  properly  dried 
out  and  unventilated,  has  often  provided  a  calamitous 


38        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

climate  for  fine  fowls.  Pullets  just  ready  to  lay,  placed 
in  such  environment  in  the  autumn  will  catch  cold, 
lose  condition  and  very  likely  become  sick  with  that 
dread  disease  —  the  roup.  Even  if  this  disgusting  dis- 
ease does  not  prove  fatal  it  causes  decided  deterioration 
in  the  breeding  quality  of  the  birds. 

A  change  of  location  from  a  mild  climate  to  a  se- 
verely cold  climate  tends  to  induce  disorders  of  the  lin- 
ing membranes  of  the  mouth,  throat  and  bronchial  tubes. 

Changing  from  a  low  level  to  a  greatly  elevated  lo- 
cation may  induce  lung  trouble.  The  atmosphere  of 
the  high  hills  is  thinner  than  that  of  the  lowlands.  To 
secure  the  usual  quantity  of  oxygen  for  oxydizing  the 
blood,  the  lungs  must  take  in  more  air  and  work  faster. 
This  may  cause  distress  or  disorder  of  the  lungs  for 
the  birds  brought  to  the  new  location,  but  they  seek  to 
adapt  themselves  to  the  condition  and  in  successive 
generations  the  size  of  the  lungs  and  the  chest  cavity 
is  increased.  Changing  from  high  land  to  low  land  is 
likely  to  cause  congestion  of  the  lungs  because  the  air 
being  heavier  and  having  more  oxygen  than  the  thin- 
ner air  of  the  heights,  overloads  and  overworks  the 
breathing  apparatus. 

Cold  weather  calls  for  increased  body-heat  which 
is  supplied  by  extra  food.  There  is  increase  of  appe- 
tite, more  active  digestion  and  assimilation  of  nourish- 
ment and  a  tendency  to  fatten. 

Nutriment.  Climate  may  thus  be  united  with  food 
In  causing  effects  which  if  long  continued  often  result 
in  variation. 

Abundance  of  food  tends  to  encourage  breeding, 
especially  if  the  climatic  conditions  are  comfortable. 

Nutriment  of  a  nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  nature 
helps  to  develop  early  maturity  and  flesh  formation. 

Fatty  and  starchy  foods  favor  fattening. 

Exercise.  The  regular  exercise  of  the  body-parts 
has  large  influence  on  the  form  and  development  of 
thes'e  parts. 

The  exercise  of  a  function  largely  determines  its 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   39 

producing  capacity.  Excessive  use  or  abuse  of  an  or- 
gan may  result  in  impairment  or  impotence.  This  fact 
applies  to  the  generative  organs  and  is  one  of  the  ex- 
planations of  chicks  dying  in  the  shell.  Frequently  the 
female  fowl  is  forced  to  excessive  egg-production  or  the 
male  bird  is  mated  to  numerous  females  or  both  of  these 
conditions  occur  together,  and  the  wonder  is  that  any 
of  the  eggs  hatch  or  that  any  of  the  chicks  live. 

Direct  and  sudden  variations  of  fowls  may  be 
caused  artificially.  For  example,  a  bone  of  the  body 
may  be  broken  or  a  part  of  a  wing  removed  by  acci- 
dent. Such  variations  from  the  normal  condition  are 
not  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring. 

Game  birds  that  are  bred  for  fighting  usually 
have  the  comb  and  wattles  "dubbed"  i.  e.  trimmed,  and 
the  process  is  repeated  generation  after  generation  but 
the  birds  never  transmit  the  mutilated  condition  to 
their  chicks. 

IN-BBEEDING.      LINE  BREEDING. 

The  breeding  together  of  birds  of  close  blood-re- 
lationship is  termed  in-breeding.  Every  fine  flock  of 
fowls  contains  a  best  male  and  a  best  female  bird, 
whatever  may  be  the  standard  according  to  which  they 
are  selected.  Pairing  these  two  birds,  particularly  if 
they  are  prepotent  in  transmitting  their  valuable  qual- 
ity, should  secure  offspring  of  exceptional  excellence. 

In  seeking  to  develop  and  improve  a  family  pos- 
sessing the  excellence  of  the  offspring,  decided  and  rapid 
progress  can  be  made  if  pairing  is  confined  to  mem- 
bers of  this  closely  related  group. 

If,  however,  birds  are  bred  together  which  have  a 
like  fault,  defect  or  weakness,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  they  possess  other  very  valuable  characters,  the 
fault,  defect  or  weakness  is  very  sure  to  be  transmitted 
in  double  degree  to  their  chicks. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  birds  are  sound  of  con- 
stitution and  in  perfect  health,  their  blood-relationship 
need  not  prevent  their  being  mated  together  for  the 


40        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

purpose  of  intensifying  a  valuable  quality  in  the  off- 
spring. 

Some  breeders  avoid  pairing  brothers  and  sisters. 
Others  breed  together  the  best  birds  for  their  purpose, 
regardless  of  relationship.  The  main  thing  is  to  know 
the  birds  and  understand  what  one  is  doing. 

A  scheme  of  line  breeding  presented  by  the  vet- 
eran poultry  breeder,  Mr.  I.  K.  Felch,  will  best  illus- 
trate how  the  poultryman  may  proceed  in  safety  and 
with  surety  of  good  results,  if  he  will  be  careful  rather 
than  careless  and  act  with  intelligence  rather  than  ig- 
norance in  making  his  selections. 

The  poultry-breeder  secures  first  a  pair  of  birds 
which  are  the  best  obtainable  for  his  purpose  i.  e.  such 
as  are  possessed,  at  least  in  considerable  degree,  of 
the  quality  which  he  wishes  to  make  a  leading  charac- 
teristic of  his  poultry  family.  This  may  be  typical 
plumage,  large  egg-production,  fine  quality  and  large 
quantity  of  flesh  or  any  other  choice  characteristic. 

Beginning  with  the  selected  pair  of  pure-bred  birds, 
the  matings  of  successive  seasons  are  so  made  that  three 
decidedly  distinct  lines  of  breeding  stock  are  developed. 
The  second  season  the  original  sire  is  mated  to  one  of 
his  daughters,  the  choice  of  all  the  pullet  chickens  of  the 
first  year's  hatching.  The  original  dam  is  paired  the 
second  season,  to  one  of  her  sons,  the  pick  of  the  cock- 
erel chickens.  The  third  season  the  original  sire,  if 
still  in  good  breeding  condition,  is  mated  to  one  of  his 
daughters  by  the  second  season's  mating  to  his  own 
daughter.  The  original  dam  is  mated  in  corresponding 
manner  to  one  of  her  sons  by  her  son,  selected  from  the 
offspring  of  her  second  season's  mating. 

Two  lines  of  breeding  coming  from  the  original 
pair,  are  thus  established,  one  in  which  the  blood  of 
the  original  sire  predominates  and  one  in  which  the 
blood  of  the  original  dam  is  dominant.  By  breeding 
together  two  birds,  each  of  the  same  generation,  one 
from  the  sire  line  and  the  other  from  the  opposite  line, 
a  third  line  is  obtained  having  equal  amounts  of  the 
blood  of  the  original  sire  and  dam,  without  pairing 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   41 

brothers  and  sisters.    The  accompanying  chart  will  make 
these   and  the  succeeding  steps   very  plain. 

FELCH  BREEDING  CHART 


Following  is  Mr.  Felch's  explanation  of  the  chart 
and  plan  of  line-breeding: 

"Each  dotted  line  represents  the  female  as  having 
been  selected  from  the  connected  upper  group,  while 
the  solid  line  shows  the  male  as  having  been  taken  from 
the  indicated  upper  group.  Each  circle  represents  the 
progeny.  To-wit:  female  No.  1  mated  with  male  No.  2 
produces  group  No.  3,  which  is  }£  the  blood  of  sire  and 
dam. 

"Females  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  their 
own  sire  No.  2,  produce  group  No.  5,  which  is  3-4  of 
the  blood  of  the  sire,  No.  2,  and  1-4  the  blood  of  the 
dam,  No.  1. 


42        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

"A  male  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  his  own 
dam,  No.  1,  produces  group  No.  4,  which  is  3-4  of  the 
blood  of  the  dam,  No.  1,  and  1-4  the  blood  of  the  sire, 

No.  2. 

"We  select  a  cockerel  from  group  No.  5  and  a  pul- 
let from  group  No.  4,  or  vice  versa,  which  will  produce 
group  No.  7.  This  is  mathematically  half  the  blood  of 
each  of  the  original  pair,  No.  1  and  No.  2.  This  is  a 
second  step  towards  producing  a  new  line. 

"Females  from  No.  5  mated  back  to  the  original 
male,  No.  2,  produce  group  No.  8,  that  are  7-8"  the 
blood  of  No.  2.  A  cockerel  from  No.  4,  mated  back  to 
the  original  dam,  No.  1,  produces  group  No.  6  that  is 
7-8  the  blood  of  the  original  dam  and  only  1-8  of  the 
blood  of  the  original  sire. 

"Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  8  and  females 
from  No.  €|  and  for  a  third  time  produce  chicks  (in 
group  No.  11)  that  are  half  the  blood  of  each  of  the 
original  pair.  This  is  the  third  step  and  the  seventh 
mating  in  securing  complete  breeding  of  our  new  strain. 
In  all  this  we  have  not  broken  the  line  of  sires,  for 
every  one  has  come  from  a  group  in  which  the  prepon- 
derance of  blood  was  that  of  the  original  sire.  Nos.  2, 
8,  13  and  18  are  virtually  the  blood  of  No.  2. 

"We  have  reached  a  point  where  we  may  wish  to 
establish  a  male  line  whose  blood  is  virtually  that  of 
our  original  dam,  and  we  now  select  from  No.  6  a  male 
which  we  mate  with  a  female  from  No.  4,  and  produce 
group  No.  9,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original 
dam,  No.  1,  and  3-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire. 

"Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  9  and  a  female 
of  the  new  strain  No.  11,  and  produce  group  No.  14 
which  becomes  21-32  of  the  blood  of  the  original  dam, 
thus  preserving  her  strain  of  blood. 

"A  male  from.  No.  13,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of 
the  original  sire,  No.  2,  mated  to  females  from  No.  10, 
which  are  5-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire,  No.  2, 
gives  us  group  No.  17,  which  is  9-16  the  blood  of  said 
sire,  while  in  No.  16  we  have  the  new  strain  and  in 
No.  18  the  strain  of  our  original  sire,  No.  2.  Thus  we  have 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   43 

three  distinct  strains,  and  by  and  with  this  systematic 
use  we  can  go  on  breeding  for  all  time  to  come." 

If  the  breeder  finds  it  desirable  to  introduce  fresh 
blood,  he  may  select  a  female  fowl  (F)  as  similar  as 
possible  to  the  strain  already  developed  and  breed  her 
to  a  male  bird  of  the  sire  line,  e.  g.  from  group  No.  13. 
Her  chicks  by  this  mating  possess  1-2  of  her  blood, 
13-32  of  the  blood  of  the  original  sire,  and  3-32  of  the 
blood  of  the  original  dam.  Her  blood  may  then,  through 
her  progeny,  be  introduced  wherever  it  seems  to  be 
necessary. 

CEOSS  BREEDING.   GRADING. 

Cross  breeding  is  the  mating  of  birds  of  different 
breeds,  varieties  or  families. 

Progeny  of  the  first  crossing,  if  the  mated  birds 
are  of  congenial  characteristics,  usually  possess  the  good 
qualities  of  the  parents  in  satisfactory  degree  but  pre- 
potency is  interrupted  and  further  breeding  between  the 
crosses  should  be  discouraged. 

The  cross-bred  progeny  may  sometimes  be  bred  back 
to  one  of  the  parent  breeds  with  good  effect.  It  is  pos- 
sible for  the  poultryman  to  introduce  line  breeding  after 
the  first  cross  breeding  if  the  object  in  view  and  the 
accompanying  conditions  appear  to  warrant  such  a  move. 
This  has  been  done  in  cases  where  a  dash  of  the  blood 
of  a  certain  breed  was  deemed  desirable  to  improve 
another  breed. 

Violent  crosses  i.  e.  matings  of  birds  of  distinctly 
opposite  or  unlike  characteristics,  should  be  avoided. 
Such  breeding  usually  brings  Atavism  into  play  and  the 
results  are  often  disappointing. 

Improvement  of  common  fowls  is  easily  and  econo- 
mically accomplished  by  using  pure-bred  male  birds. 
The  progeny  are  termed  grades.  In  breeding  poultry 
the  male  bird  is  half  the  flock.  His  prepotency  when 
mated  with  ordinary  farm  fowls,  should  give  him  heredi- 
tary influence  exceeding  that  of  his  mates.  Their  ro- 
bustness of  constitution  and  excellent  health  make  a 
good  foundation  on  which  to  build  a  structure  of  beau- 


44        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

tiful  or  profitable  qualities  through  prepotency  of  the 
pure-bred  male. 

By  continuing  the  use  of  superior  male  birds  of  an 
adapted  breed  for  successive  seasons  the  common  fowls 
may  be  rapidly  improved  in  such  lines  as  the  production 
of  eggs  and  plump  carcasses  for  market. 

METHODS   OF   MATING. 

Owing  to  the  somewhat  artificial  standards  of  per- 
fection adopted  for  several  breeds  and  varieties  of 
fowls,  by  the  American  Poultry  Association,  a  new 
method  of  mating  breeding  stock  has  come  into  vogue 
among  aspirants  for  exhibition  honors.  This  method 
is  very  different  from  the  natural  way  of  mating  with 
the  idea  of  selecting  exhibition  birds  of  both  sexes  from 
the  progeny  of  the  same  parentage.  The  old  way  has 
seemed  slow  and  unsatisfactory  to  some  fanciers  al- 
though others  pronounce  it  suitable  for  their  purpose. 

Double  mating,  so-called,  provides  separate  pair- 
ing for  breeding  exhibition  male  and  female  birds. 

To  produce  standard  or  exhibition  cockerels  of  some 
breeds,  a  mating  (termed  a  cockerel  mating)  is  made 
which  is  intended  to  yield  among  the  cockerel  chick- 
ens, a  large  proportion  which  will  develop  character- 
istics closely  approaching  the  type  fixed  by  the  Standard 
of  Perfection  for  cockerels  of  the  breed  or  variety  in 
question.  The  female  chickens  hatched  and  raised  from 
this  cockerel  mating  are  not  expected  to  meet  standard 
requirements. 

A  so-called  pullet  mating,  on  the  other  hand,  seeks 
to  secure  pullets  of  standard  quality  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  sacrificing  the  cockerel  chicks. 

A  simple  illustrative  case  will  show  how  the  method 
is  applied.  The  standard  for  Single  Comb  White  Leg- 
horns requires  the  male  bird  to  have  an  erect  comb 
while  the  female  should  carry  a  comb  folded  over  the 
head. 

To  promptly  get  cockerels  having  upright  standard 
combs,  a  male  bird  having  as  nearly  a  typical  comb 
as  possible,  is  mated  to  a  female  having  an  erect  comb. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        45 

According  to  the  laws  of  Heredity,  these  two  birds, 
having  each  an  erect  comb  should  certainly  convey 
this  character  to  their  offspring.  Both  the  cockerel 
and  pullet  chicks  will  develop  a  preponderance  of  erect 
combs.  The  exhibition  cockerels  are  selected  from  the 
flock  and  the  pullets  are  passed  by  unless  one  or  two 
are  selected  for  future  cockerel  matings. 

For  the  pullet  mating,  a  female  having  a  typical 
folded  comb  is  mated  with  a  male  bird  which  has  a 
lopped  comb.  From  the  resulting  offspring  the  exhibi- 
tion pullets  are  chosen  and  the  cockerels  are  used  for 
the  table  or  marketed. 

Double  mating  is  extensively  applied  in  breeding 
exhibition  birds  of  parti-colored  varieties  such  as  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks',  Dark  Brahmas,  Partridge  Co- 
chins and  Silver  Penciled  Wyandots. 

By  continuing  the  process  through  successive  sea- 
sons, some  very  fine  specimens,  according  to  the  Stan- 
dard of  Perfection,  may  be  obtained,  but  the  breeder 
has  in  reality  split  the  breed  into  two  branches  suf- 
ficiently different  to  be  considered  separate  varieties. 

Whatever  the  method  followed,  the  results  in  poul- 
try breeding  depend  mainly  upon  the  understanding, 
study,  experience  and  skill  of  the  breeder.  It  is  he 
who  marshals  the  forces  of  Inheritance,  Environment 
and  Exercise  in  combinations  to  conquer  obstacles  and 
win  success. 


CHAPTER  III 
Incubation 

The  successful  hatching  of  hens'  eggs  into  strong, 
sturdy  chicks  depends  partly  on  correct  conditions  of 
Incubation  and  partly  on  the  combination  of  influences 
affecting  the  breeding  stock  which  produces  the  eggs. 

The  development  of  a  perfect  hatching  egg  is  not  the 
work  of  a  few  hours  or  a  few  days.  Every  egg  has  a 
pedigree  extending  back  through  many  generations  of 
breeding  birds.  Previous  to  the  actual  making  of  the 
egg  in  the  body  of  the  mother  bird,  influences  have  been 
in  operation  determining,  in  large  degree,  the  qualities 
of  the  germ-cell  and  the  characteristics  which  it  will 
transmit  to  the  chick  which  comes  from  it. 

The  factors  of  breeding  have  had  a  very  important 
influence  through  the  successive  generations  of  the  an- 
cestry of  the  egg.  These  factors  should  have  been  wisely 
directed  to  insure  results  in  the  egg  favorable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  chick  answering  the  purpose  of  the  poul- 
tryman. 

The  food  and  feeding  of  the  parent  birds  and  of 
the  generations  preceding  them,  must  have  been  con- 
ducive to  healthy,  natural,  satisfactory  reproduction. 

Certainly  no  sickness  or  tendency  to  disease,  no  or- 
ganic or  constitutional  weakness,  no  degeneration  of  any 
organ  or  body-part  should  have  occurred  in  any  of  the 
breeding  stock  Involved  in  the  production  of  eggs  that 
are  expected  to  develop  into  valuable  chicks  under  the 
influences  of  incubation. 

FOUR   PRACTICAL  POINTS. 

Four  important  conditions  relative  to  the  actual 
parent  birds  which  produce  the  eggs,  are  these: 

1.  The  birds  should  be  well  matured.  The  results 
of  special  experiments  show  conclusively  that,  other 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        47 

things  being  equal,  the  eggs  of  adult  hens  hatch  better 
and  produce  better  chicks  than  the  eggs  of  immature 
pullets.  The  practical  experience  of  many  poultrymen 
confirms  this  conclusion.  It  is  an  excellent  plan,  there- 
fore, to  test  the  laying  quality  of  the  birds  during  their 
first  laying  season,  not  attempting  to  use  any  of  these 
pullets'  eggs  for  hatching,  and  reserve  the  best  of  these 
birds  for  breeding  the  next  season. 

2.  The  parent  birds  should  not  have  been  forced 
to  excessive  breeding.    Avoid  mating  a  male  bird  with 
too  many  females,  and  do  not  push  the  egg-production 
of  the  hens  to  extremes,  especially  during  cold  weather. 
It  is  not  reasonable  to  expect  a  fowl  to  begin  laying  in 
the    early    fall,    continue    laying    through    the    winter 
months  and  then  furnish  numerous  eggs  for  successful 
hatching  in  the  spring. 

3.  The  breeding  stock  should  take  physical  exer- 
cise at  least  sufficient  to  keep  all  the  organs  of  the  body 
in  good  healthy  condition.     The  blood  must  be  kept  in 
active  circulation.    Running  on  ample  range  or  scratch- 
ing in  litter  for  a  portion  of  their  living  is  advantageous. 

4.  The  fowls  should  lay  the  eggs  during  the  natural 
breeding  season  of  birds,  the  springtime  of  the  temperate 
zone,  the  usual  "nesting  time"  of  wild  birds. 

THE  FORMATION   OF  THE  EGG. 

'Numerous  minute  female  eggs  are  clustered  closely 
in  the  hen's  ovary,  which  is  attached  to  the  rear  of 
the  diaphragm,  slightly  to  the  left  of  and  below  the 
spinal  column.  Each  little  globule,  which  is  the  begin- 
ning of  an  egg,  is  enclosed  within  a  thin  transparent 
membrane  termed  an  ovisac.  The  yolk  of  the  egg  de- 
velops anc  enlarges  until  it  bursts  from  the  ovisac  and 
drops  into  the  mouth  of  the  oviduct.  The  yolk  carrying 
the  female  germ  is  surrounded  by  a  very  thin  membrane 
which  is  called  the  yolk-sac.  The  oviduct,  or  egg-tube, 
during  breeding  time,  is  about  one-half  inch  in  diameter 
and  folds  upon  itself  within  the  abdominal  cavity,  so 
that  its  actual  length  is  fronivtwenty  to  thirty  inches 
in  adult  fowls.  It  conveys  the  eggs  from  the  region  of 


48         PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

the  ovary  to  the  cloaca  connecting  with  the  vent.  Dur- 
ing this  journey  each  egg  is  completed  and  prepared  for 
laying.  The  mucous  inner  linings  of  the  oviduct  se- 
crete and  supply  the  albumen,  which,  placed  around  the 
yolk,  forms  the  "white"  of  the  egg.  The  layer  imme- 
diately surrounding  the  yolk-sac  is  rather  thin  albumen 
and  this  is  enveloped  by  a  layer  of  thicker  albumen. 
Then  comes  another  layer  of  thin  albumen.  Two  cur- 
ious whitish  cords  of  thick,  twisted  albumen  extend  from 
opposite  sides  of  the  yolk  through  the  layers  of  albumen 
to  opposite  ends  of  the  egg.  By  their  weight  and  ten- 
sion these  cords  help  to  hold  the  yolk  in  position,  float- 
ing midway  of  the  egg  with  the  germ-cell  on  top,  keep- 
ing the  latter  immersed  in  the  white  of  the  egg  and  pre- 
venting it  from  coming  in  -contact  with  the  shell.  In 
the  course  of  its  passage  along  inside  the  oviduct,  the 
egg  receives  its  "soft  shell,"  an  envelope  composed  of 
two  thin  whitish  membranes,  which  separate  at  the  large 
end  of  the  egg  to  form  the  "air-cell."  INext  surround- 
ing and  protecting  all  the  parts  described,  comes  the 
outer  shell,  which  is  formed  mainly  of  calcium  carbonate 
supplied  in  soluble  form.  The  shell  may  receive  a  fin- 
ishing coat  of  pigment  to  give  the  outsidfe  a  distinguish- 
ing tint.  After  the  shell  has  hardened,  its  particles  form 
little  prisms,  which,  standing  side  by  side  and  extending 
from  the  inner  to  the  outer  parts  of  the  shell,  form  the 
sides  of  little  pores  allowing  the  slow  passage  of  air 
and  gaseous  compounds  through  the  shell.  The  egg 
being  fully  formed  and  finished,  passes  from  the  ovi- 
duct into  the  cloaca  and  soon  after  is  "laid." 

FRESHNESS   AND   FERTILITY  OF  EGGS. 

Eggs  selected  for  hatching  should  certainly  be  fresh 
and  fertile  to  secure  desirable  results.  Experience  has 
proved  that  every  day  after  the  fertile  egg  is  a  week 
old  it  loses  somewhat  in  hatching  power.  To  set  eggs 
that  are  more  than  two  weeks  old  is  to  decidedly  in- 
crease the  chances  of  "death  in  the  shell"  or  weakness  of 
the  chicks  if  the  eggs  hatch. 

The  poultry  breeder  seeks  to  secure  the  sure  fer- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        49 

tilization  of  the  eggs  by  careful  mating  of  his  vig- 
orous, healthy  breeding  stock  according  to  the  facts  and 
factors  already  considered  and  by  their  proper  feeding 
and  management  during  the  breeding  season.  To  in- 
sure the  highest  percentage  of  fertility  in  the  eggs,  two 
male  birds  a*e  sometimes  used  with  one  flock  of  hens, 
alternating  their  services  day  by  day.  Abundant  range 
or  exercise  and  fresh  green  food  are  favorable  to  fer- 
tility and  good  hatching  quality. 

The  fertility  of  the  egg  can  not  be  certainly  deter- 
mined before  incubation  begins  without  breaking  the 
shell,  which  would  destroy  its  power  of  hatching. 

The  interested  poultryman  who  is  willing  to  study 
a  few  eggs  may  find  it  instructive  to  examine,  and  com- 
pare several  germ-cells.  A  person  who  has  keen  eye- 
sight or  who  will  use  a  lens  of  moderate  magnifying 
power,  can  readily  detect  a  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  infertile  and  fertile  germ-cells.  Open  a  space  of  the 
size  of  a  silver  quarter  of  a  dollar  in  the  shell  of  an 
egg,  midway  between  the  ends  or  carefully  break  the 
shell  and  gently  empty  its  contents  into  a  saucer.  The 
yolk,  floating  towards  the  top  in  the  wkite  of  the  egg, 
carries,  imbedded  in  its  upper  surface,  the  germ-cell — 
a  circular  spot  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  female  egg-cell  which  has  failed  to  be  fertilized  or 
fecundated  by  the  male  germ,  has  a  whitish  appearance 
except  that  little  clear  spots  are  distributed  here  and 
there  over  its  surface.  The  fertilized  germ-cell  has  an 
outer  margin  which  is  whitish  and  within  this  a  small 
clear  circle  containing  little  whitish  dots.  This  clear, 
central  portion  of  the  fecundated  cell  is  the  germ  which 
develops  by  incubation  into  the  embryo  chick. 

There  is  some  variation  in  the  appearance  of  fertile 
germ-cells  because  fecundation  of  the  female  cell  takes 
place  before  the  yolk  has  proceeded  far  in  the  oviduct 
and  development  of  the  embryo  often  begins  while  the 
egg  is  within  the  body  of  the  fowl. 

The  perfect  fertilized  germ-cell,  in  the  first  place, 
is  a  single  cell.  Under  the  influence  of v the  body  heat 
surrounding  it  in  the  oviduct,  and  because  of  the  life 


50        PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY   CULTURE 

and  reproductive  power  within  itself,  this  cell  divides, 
each  half  then  enlarging  until  it  has  increased  to  the 
size  of  the  mother-cell.  Next  each  of  the  two  new  cells 
divides  and  forms  another  pair  of  cells  and  they  grow 
to  the  size  of  their  parent  cells.  If  this  process  con- 
tinues to  a  considerable  extent,  the  multiplication  and 
crowding  together  of  cells  causes  the  beginning  embryo 
to  present  a  surface  appearance,  which  is  termed  the 
"mulberry"  stage  of  development.  If  the  germ-cell  thus 
develops  to  a  considerable  degree  within  the  oviduct 
and  the  egg  is  then  laid  and  kept  warm  by  successive 
hens  laying  in  the  same  nest  or  by  a  broody  hen  sit- 
ting in  the  nest,  cell  division  may  continue  and  em- 
bryonic development  be  carried  too  far  to  allow  of  a 
halt  in  the  process,  such  as  naturally  and  safely  occurs 
when  the  egg  is  cooled  soon  after  it  is  laid. 

TEEATMENT    AND    CAKE    OF    EGGS    BEFORE    INCUBATING. 

(After  seriously  studying  the  structure  and  forma- 
tion of  an  egg,  the  poultryman  comes  to  realize  that  it 
is  a  delicate  living  organism  requiring  careful  treat- 
ment, especially  if  it  is  to  be  used  for  hatching  into  a 
live,  lusty  chick. 

The  eggs  s^-ould  be  collected,  by  clean  hands,  from 
the  laying  nests  frequently  enough  to  avoid  any  danger 
of  premature  incubation  or  of  subjection  to  freezing 
temperature.  Cleanliness  of  the  eggs  is  insured  if  the 
nesting  material  is  renewed  before  it  becomes  dirty  and 
the  fowls  have  dry  or  well  littered  quarters,  consequently 
clean  feet,  and  are  kept  from  roosting  on  or  in  the 
nests. 

Keep  the  eggs  in  a  cool  place  but  safe  from  freez- 
ing. The  air  of  the  place  should  be  pure  but  not  dry 
enough  or  in  motion  sufficiently  to  cause  evaporation 
of  any  of  the  liquid  contents  of  the  eggs.  The  air-cell 
is  an  index  of  the  last  mentioned  condition.  If  the  air- 
cell  enlarges  there  has  been  loss  of  the  liquid  portion  of 
the  egg  to  some  extent  by  evaporation  through  the  pores 
of  the  shell. 

It  is  natural  for  an  egg  to  rest  upon  its  side  and  it 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        51 

is  well  to  keep  the  eggs  from  contact  with  each  other. 
Turning  of  the  eggs,  if  gently  done,  every  second  or 
third  day  will  do  no  harm.  Allow  no  grease  or  foulness 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  eggs.  Begin  incubating  as 
soon  as  possible  and  practicable  after  the  eggs  are  laid. 

Examine  the  eggs  and  cull  out  every  one  that  by 
sight,  touch,  sound  or  any  other  means  appears  likely 
to  fail  in  hatching  or  liable  to  produce  an  undesirable 
chick.  Reject  such  as  are  extra  large  or  very  small  for 
the  breed,  also  those  of  unusual  shape,  or  having  mot- 
tled, coarse  or  porous  shells,  and  such  as  have  thin, 
papery  or  very  thick,  hard,  metallic-like  shells.  Some 
eggs  if  tapped  with  the  metallic  end  of  a  pen-holder  give 
out  a  sharp  metallic  sound  and  such  are  usually  rejected 
by  the  experienced  hatcher. 

It  is  well  to  make  a  critical  examination  of  the 
eggs  before  beginning  incubation  by  means  of  an  egg- 
tester  such  as  is  used  in  testing  eggs  during  the  pro- 
cess of  incubation.  All  of  the  imperfections  of  shell 
show  up  vividly  before  the  strong  light  of  the  tester. 
Imperfect  conditions  inside  the  egg  also  become  visible 
by  this  means  in  some  cases.  Discard  any  eggs  that  are 
old  as  indicated  by  large  air-cell,  also  any  that  have  the 
inner  membrane  of  the  air-cell  ruptured,  indicating 
rough  handling  or  shaking  of  the  eggs,  likewise  any 
that  show  a  veinwork  of  blood  vessels  or  a  circle  of  red 
color  indicating  that  the  egg  has  been  partially  incu- 
bated or  that  the  embryo  is  dead. 

If  the  observer  is  doubtful  as  to  some  of  the  eggs 
these  may  be  marked  with  a  pencil,  their  peculiarities 
noted  and  then  incubated  with  the  other  eggs  that  ap- 
pear to  be  all  right.  During  incubation  the  eggs  that 
were  considered  doubtful  may  be  frequently  examined 
and  in  this  way  the  hatcher  will  learn  at  first  hand 
many  important  points  in  regard  to  the  incubating  qual- 
ity of  eggs.  Each  successive  hatching  which  he  faith- 
fully studies  will  add  to  his  knowledge  in  a  very  prac- 
tical way. 


52        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


A  SPECIAL  STUDY  OF  INCUBATING  EGGS. 

The  poultryman  who  is  sufficiently  'progressive  to 
take  a  three  weeks'  course  of  home  study  in  embryology, 
will  thereby  lay  the  foundation  for  intelligent  hatching 
of  chickens.  (Such  a  course  will  prove  interesting  as 
well  as  instructive  and  need  not  be  expensive.  The 
sacrifice  of  a  number  of  eggs  and  the  spending  of  some 
time  and  thought  will  enable  the  student  thus  to  learn 
some  very  valuable  lessons. 

A  good  egg-tester  is  a  necessary  aid  in  his  investi- 
gations. If  electric  light  is  at  hand  the  poultryman  is 
fortunate.  Such  light  is  very  penetrating.  Acetylene 
gas  yields  a  brilliant,  white  flame  and  may  be  readily 
obtained  by  purchasing  a  bicycle  lamp.  The  calcium 
carbide  used  to  produce  the  gas  is  not  expensive.  If 
neither  of  these  forms  of  light  is  available,  a  good 
kitchen  lamp,  burning  kerosene  oil,  will  answer  fairly 
well.  The  common  form  of  egg-tester  usually  furnished 
with  an  incubator  is  simply  a  tin  chfmney  made  to  fit 
on  the  burner  of  a  hand  lamp.  It  has  an  egg-hole  at 
one  side  on  the  level  of  the  lamp  flame.  This  metallic 
chimney  is  liable  to  become  very  much  heated  when  in 
use. 

A  better  arrangement,  especially  if  an  electric  bulb 
or  a  bicycle  lamp  is  available,  is  made  of  galvanized  iron 
in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  about  six  inches  in  diameter 
and  ten  inches  high,  provided  at  one  side  with  a  branch 
tube  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  and  two  and 
one-half  inches  long,  the  latter  being  placed  so  that  it 
will  be  on  a  level  with  the  light.  The  outer  end  of  the 
branch  tube  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  black  felt  cloth 
or  dark  flannel,  in  which  is  cut  a  circular  or  oval  hole 
about  one  and  one-half  inches  wide,  or  just  a  little  less 
than  the  width  of  the  eggs  to  be  tested.  This  piece  of 
cloth  is  held  fast  against  the  end  of  the  tube  by  a  ring 
of  galvanized  iron  or  tin  one-half  inch  wide,  which  fits 
closely  over  the  cloth  and  the  end  of  the  tube.  Six  or 
eight  half-inch  holes  are  cut  in  the  large  cylinder  an 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   53 

inch  from  its  lower  edge  and  on  the  side  opposite  the 
branch  tube,  to  supply  air  from  below. 

In  ordinary  testing,  which  is  done  in  a  dark  room 
during  incubation,  each  egg  is  held  successively  against 
the  hole  in  the  cloth,  at  the  end  of  the  branch  tube,  the 
strong  light  of  the  tester  penetrating  the  egg  and  making 
its  contents  more  or  less  visible  to  the  operator.  The 
latter  may  observe  the  egg  from  one  side  if  he  prefers 
and  thus  relieve  the  eyes  from  looking  directly  towards 
the  light  of  the  tester. 

In  studying  the  development  of  the  embryo  and  the 
appearance  of  the  various  parts  of  the  egg,  the  latter 
may  be  held  against  the  egg-hole  of  the  tester  in  dif- 
ferent positions  to  facilitate  observation. 

THE  SUCCESSIVE  STAGES  OF  INCUBATION. 

Selected  white-shelled  eggs  are  placed,  some  under 
broody  hens  and  some  in  an  incubator  if  one  is  avail- 
able, so  as  to  compare  eggs  naturally  and  artificially  in- 
cubated, while  studying  the  successive  stages  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  embryo  chicks  in  the  egg. 

At  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  of  incubation  a 
change  can  be  detected  in  the  fertile  egg  held  before  the 
egg-tester,  if  its  search-light  is  very  strong  and  the  shell 
of  the  egg  thin  and  white  or  nearly  transparent.  By  cell 
division  and  multiplication  the  germ's  surface  or  skin 
(blastoderm)  has  increased  in  size  and  shows  against 
the  faint  yolk-shadow  as  a  small  shadow-circle  (about 
one-half  inch  in  diameter),  having  a  slightly  reddish  or 
rosy  tint. 

At  the  end  of  another  day  the  circle  has  increased 
in  size  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  or  perhaps  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  the  tint  is  of  slightly  deeper  tinge. 

After  seventy-two  hours  of  incubating  the  blastoderm 
shows  a  decidedly  bright  reddish  color  especially  if  the 
shell  of  the  egg  is  nearly  transparent.  Its  size  has  in- 
creased to  about  one  and  one-quarter  inches.  The  cen- 
tral portion  appears  slightly  lighter  than  the  parts  at 
and  near  the  circumference. 

By  holding  an  egg,  during  the  early  stages  of  in- 


54        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

cubation,  in  a  horizontal  position  against  the  egg-hole 
of  the  tester  and  looking  down  upon  it  as  it  is  gently 
revolved  in  the  hand,  the  yolk  is  seen  to  float  with  the 
blastoderm,  always  on  its  uppermost  side. 

(By  placing  two  or  three  fresh  eggs  under  the  sitting 
hen  or  in  the  incubator  on  the  second  day  and  several 
more  on  the  third  day  after  beginning  the  experiment, 
the  student  may  have  at  one  time,  eggs  of  one,  two  and 
three  days  incubating,  to  examine.  After  comparing 
these  before  the  search-light  of  the  egg-tester  he^may 
open  their  shells  and  carefully  deposit  their  contents 
in  separate  saucers  or  in  glass  bowls  half  filled  with 
water.  The  beginnings  of  embryonic  development  are 
plainly  visible.  The  blastoderm  of  the  germ  appears  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  floating  yolk  and  its  color  is  seen 
to  be  due  to  the  blood  which  fills  the  fine  net-work  of 
veins  spreading  out  from  the  center  of  the  embryo, 
over  the  surface  of  the  yolk.  The  circumference  of  the 
collection  of  ramifying  blood-vessels  is  bordered  by  a 
vein  which  is  named  the  sinus  terminalis.  As  the  net- 
work of  capillary  veins  enlarges  from  day  to  day  this 
terminating  or  bordering  vein  extends  in  a  wider  cir- 
cumference, more  and  more  distant  from  the  embryo- 
center. 

At  the  end  of  the  fourth  day  the  outer  bordering 
portion  of  the  net-work  having  followed  further  around 
the  yolk  shows  decidedly  darker  than  the  central  por- 
tion, except  for  the  dark  spot  which  is  the  shadow  of 
the  embryo  itself. 

After  five  days  of  incubation  are  completed  the  em- 
bryonic development  has  become  very  distinct  and  de- 
cided. The  blood-vessels  have  extended  their  meshes 
fully  half  way  around  the  yolk  and  their  shadow  gives 
a  dark  appearance  to  the  part  of  the  egg  that  they  oc- 
cupy. The  border  of  the  shadow  along  the  middle  axis 
of  the  egg  shows  darkest  as  the  egg  is  held  vertically 
before  the  tester. 

The  body  of  the  embryo  shows  in  the  midst  of  the 
shadow  as  a  blurred  image  with  a  dark  spot  near  one 
end  which  is  an  eye. 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   55 

The  embryo,  at  this  stage, 'shows  some  independent 
movement  when  the  egg  is  held  still  before  the  tester, 
It  appears  to  swim  in  a  clear  space.  It  is.  in  fact,  sur- 
rounded by  a  sac  filled  with  thin,  transparent  fluid  (the 
amnion)  which  is  imbedded  in  the  yolk  and  helps  to 
prevent  the  embryo's  too  near  approach  to  the  shell, 
during  the  first  half  of  the  period  of  incubation. 

At  this  time  eggs  from  under  the  sitting  hens  should 
be  carefully  compared  with  some  from  the  incubator. 
If  the  eggs  from  both  machine  and  hens  appear  alike 
in  their  development,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  ma- 
chine is  providing  conditions  of  incubation  that  are 
satisfactory.  If  decided  differences  in  appearance  are 
noticed  the  same  should  be  carefully  studied.  The  eggs 
under  the  influences  of  natural  incubation  may  show, 
before  the  tester,  only  slight  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
air-cell,  somewhat  dull  and  indistinct  outline  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  slightly  blurred  appearance  of  the 
embryo  while  the  eggs  from  the  incubator  may  show 
bright  scarlet  veins  having  their  edges  sharply  defined 
and  an  embryo  distinctly  outlined,  dark  in  color  and 
with  an  eye-spot  decidedly  black.  Possibly  the  air-cell 
has  increased  considerably  in  size. 

If  any  of  these  differences  in  appearance  are  ob- 
served by  the  experimenter  he  may  conclude  that  the 
hens  are  doing  better  incubating  than  the  machine. 
Appearances  as  noted  indicate  that  the  fertile  eggs  under 
the  hens  should  successfully  hatch  into  strong  chicks. 

The  artificial  method,  however,  according  to  the  in- 
dications mentioned,  has  provided  too  high  a  temperature 
at  some  time  or  times,  too  much  air  (excessive  ventila- 
tion) or  too  little  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
egg-chamber  during  the  early  days  of  incubation.  The 
heart  action  and  blood  circulation  are  too  emphatic  and 
there  may  come  reaction. 

If,  furthermore,  the  bordering  vein  of  the  blasto- 
derm shows  through  the  shell  of  the  egg,  it  is  additional 
and  emphatic  testimony  to  the  injurious  effects  of  one 
or  more  of  the  unfavorable  conditions  just  mentioned. 
If  the  bordering  vein  appears  as  a  bright  red  circle 


56        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

(blood-ring)  there  has  befcn  a  hemorrhage  and  death  in 
the  shell.  The  expired  embryo  may  then  appear  as  a 
dark  spot  close  against  the  inner  shell  or  floating  in  the 
white  of  the  egg.  If  the  contents  of  the  egg  have  a 
cloudy  appearance  and  no  life  movement  the  germ  has 
started  and  died.  Any  eggs  that  fail  to  show  motion  or 
life  within  should  be  opened  and  examined  to  determine 
what  has  taken  place. 

If  the  air-cell  is  much  enlarged  there  has  been  too 
great  evaporation  of  the  liquid  contents  of  the  egg  and 
the  amnion  probably  lacks  somewhat  of  the  limpid  al- 
bumen which  should  surround  and  protect  the  embryo. 

"Eggs  which  appear  clear,  like  fresh  eggs,  before  the 
tester  are  infertile  and  will  not  develop  embryos. 

At  the  close  of  the  sixth  day  of  incubating,  the  large 
ends  of  the  eggs  are  carefully  looked  at  before  the  tester 
to  see  if  the  blood-vesels  of  the  blastoderm  have  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  across  under  the  air-cell.  If  the  air- 
cell  has  increased  much  in  size,  this  passage  may  be 
hindered.  The  distance  across  is  increased  and  the  di- 
rect evaporation  tends  to  leave  the  albumen  between 
the  yolk  and  the  air-cell  thicker  than  it  should  be.  Fur- 
ther the  net-work  of  veins  is  liable  to  halt  in  its  advance 
under  the  air-cell,  turn  at  its  edge  and  fold  back  upon 
itself  instead  of  continuing  to  surround  the  yolk  as  it 
should. 

After  seven  full  days  have  elapsed  the  veins  should 
show  beyond  the  air-cell  and  correspondingly  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  yolk  at  the  small  end  of  the  egg. 
The  embryo,  at  this  stage,  should  appear  very  active  in 
its  movements,  diving  about  within  its  watery  sac,  now 
disappearing  from  sight  for  a  moment,  deep  down  in 
the  amnion,  then  reappearing,  plunging  this  way  and 
that  and  seemingly  well  satisfied  with  the  conditions  of 
life  within  an  egg-shell. 

At  this  stage  of  incubation,  even  dark  shelled  eggs 
may  be  satisfactorily  examined  before  a  good  egg-tester. 

If  the  eggs  from  the  incubator  appear  to  be  less  for- 
ward in  development  than  those  from  under  the  sitting 
hens,  it  will  be  well  to  open  several  of  each  lot  and  ex- 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   57 

amine  closely.  The  fine  net-work  of  veins  should  have 
nearly  enclosed  the  yolk.  If  there  has  been  a  halting 
and  folding  at  the  edges,  part  of  the  yolk's  surface  will 
be  left  uncovered  by  blood-vesels  with  a  consequent  fail- 
ure to  utilize  some  of  the  sources  of  nourishment  for 
the  growth  of  the  embryo. 

Eight  days  should  have  given  ample  time  for  the 
complete  surrounding  of  the  yolk  by  the  net-work  of 
veins.  An  egg  should  be  opened  to  see  how  this  enclos- 
ing of  the  yolk  appears  at  close  range. 

Another  series  of  blood-vessels  appears — the  veins 
of  the  allantois  which  starts  out  at  the  abdomen  of  the 
embryo  about  the  third  day  of  incubation  and  gradually 
spreads,  with  its  net-work  of  large  and  small  veins,  until 
it  encloses  the  white  and  the  yolk  together  and  ramifies 
over  the  inner  membrane  of  the  soft  shell  of  the  egg. 

By  the  end  of  the  ninth  day  the  large  blood-vessels 
of  the  allantois  show  conspicuously,  floating  in  the  al- 
bumen, near  the  inner  shell,  in  the  area  just  below  the 
air-cell,  where  also  the  movements  of  the  embryo  are 
also  evident. 

After  ten  days  the  allantois  veining  has  become  very 
apparent  in  the  somewhat  clear  region  next  to  the  air- 
cell.  The  allantois  system  of  veins  helps  to  darken  the 
shadow  before  the  egg-tester,  contrasting  strongly  with 
the  very  clear  space  shown  by  the  somewhat  enlarged 
air-cell. 

Eleven  days  of  development  having  taken  place, 
several  eggs  should  be  opened  in  order  to  observe  the 
embryo,  now  completely  formed  as  to  its  body-parts  and 
organs.  The  little  organism  will  live  for  some  minutes 
after  the  egg  is  opened  and  the  throbbing  heart  is  con- 
spicuous because  of  its  pulsing  as  it  pumps  the  blood 
through  the  veins  that  fill  the  flattened  mass  of  albumen 
and  redden  it  with  their  ramifications. 

The  next  nine  or  ten  days  constitute  the  period  of 
growth  of  the  successfully  shaped  embryo  chick.  The 
rapid  increase  in  size  of  the  body-parts  from  day  to  day 
causes  the  gradual  decided  darkening  oil  the  contents 
of  the  egg.  The  numerous  blood-vessels  help  to  shade 


58   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

the  picture  so  that  soon  only  an  opaque  oval  form  shows 
before  the  tester,  except  for  the  clear  area  of  the  air-cell 
and  narrow  space  below  it,  which  still  allows  some  light 
to  percolate  through  and  permits  the  movements  of  the 
embryo  to  be  detected.  The  air-cell  enlarges  rapidly 
during  the  last  week  of  incubation  because  of  the  escape 
of  the  waste  products  of  growth  through  the  shell. 

At  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  day,  if  any  of  the  eggs 
show,  before  the  tester,  areas  on  one  side  or  at  the  small 
end  that  are  clear  or  yellowish  instead  of  dark  opaque, 
these  eggs  should  be  marked  and  especial  care  taken 
to  note  whether  they  hatch  or  not  and  if  they  do  hatch 
what  sort  of  chicks  come  from  them.  This  appearance 
is  usually  due  to  the  folding  back  of  the  veins  or  their 
failure  to  occupy  the  areas  which  lack  opaqueness. 

By  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  day  some  of  the  eggs 
placed  before  the  tester,  may  show  a  perfectly  opaque 
oval,  due  to  the  chick  having  burst  through  the  inner 
membrane  and  occupied  the  space  of  the  air-cell.  In 
this  case  he  has  begun  to  breathe  with  his  lungs  and 
may  very  likely  be  heard  to  peep  in  the  shell  occasion- 
ally. 

On  the  twentieth  day  most  of  the  chicks  in  the 
shells  should  burst  their  barriers  and  begin  life  outside 
the  shells.  All  the  live  chicks  should  certainly  be 
hatched  by  the  end  of  the  twenty-first  day. 

Any  eggs  that  fail  to  hatch  should  be  looked  at  be- 
fore the  tester  and  then  be  broken  open  and  examined 
critically,  to  learn,  if  possible,  the  reason  of  their  dying 
in  the  shell. 

In  eggs  showing  areas  of  albumen  not  covered  with 
veins,  the  chicks  may  have  failed  to  complete  their 
growth  or  possess  too  little  strength  to  hatch  because 
of  lack  of  sufficient  nourishment.  Possibly  this  con- 
dition may  trace  back  to  lack  of  vigor  in  the  parent 
breeding  stock  or  to  their  improper  feeding.  If  this  is 
not  the  case  there  may  have  been  too  high  a  temperature 
maintained  in  the  first  days  of  incubation  or  too  low 
a  temperature  in  the  under  parts  of  the  eggs. 

Sometimes  the  chick  succeeds  in  breaking  through 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        59 

the  shell  but  becomes  choked  with  unused  albumen  and 
dies  by  strangulation. 

Death  in  the  shell  is  sometimes  associated  with  un- 
timely changes  of  the  allantois.  This  temporary  organ 
by  its  net-work  of  blood-vessels  gathers  nutriment  from 
the  albumen  and  partly  takes  the  place  of  lungs,  by 
gathering  oxygen  from  the  air  through  the  pores  of  the 
shell.  The  blood  of  the  allantois  veins  should  be  with- 
drawn into  the  body  of  the  chick  at  about  the  time  the 
lungs  come  into  use.  If  the  allantois  blood  circulation 
ceases  too  soon,  before  the  chick  breaks  the  shell,  the 
lungs  may  not  get  a  sufficient  supply  of  air  and  suffoca- 
tion results.  This  condition  may  be  due  to  lack  of  ade- 
quate ventilation  of  the  eggs  during  the  third  week  of 
incubation. 

On  the  other  hand  the  allantois  may  continue  active 
operations  too  long,  after  the  lungs  are  in  use  for  breath- 
ing. Carbonic  dioxid  gas  is  inhaled  wi£h  the  little  air 
obtainable  and  if  the  chick's  bill  does  not  quickly  break 
through  the  shell,  death  by  asphyxiation  or  exhaustion 
occurs.  Excessive  ventilation  of  the  eggs  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  period  of  incubation  aggravates  this 
condition.  Thick,  tough  shells  increase  the  danger 
from  this  disorder. 

If  the  shells  of  the  eggs  have  not  become  sufficiently 
weakened  to  permit  of  being  easily  pipped,  and  hatching 
is  prolonged  beyond  the  twenty-first  day,  some  chicks 
may  fail  to  emerge  but  if  they  did  hatch  would  very 
likely  come  out  cripples. 

Before  hatching  th3  chick  should  enclose  the  re- 
maining yolk  within  its  abdomen.  If  there  is  a  failure 
to  do  this  and  to  completely  close  the  navel,  it  is  better 
that  the  chick  should  die  in  the  shell  rather  than  to 
come  forth  to  be  disembowelled  and  suffer  a  lingering 
death. 

THE    NATURAL   METHOD    OF   HATCHING. 

The  majority  of  chickens  are  hatched  by  means  of 
sitting  hens.  Where  only  a  few  broods  or  even  several 


60    PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

hundred  chickens  are  to  be  hatched  yearly,  this  plan  is 
usually  satisfactory. 

As  a  rule  mature  fowls  are  better  than  pullets  at 
incubathig  eggs. 

Successful  hatching  depends  largely  upon  the  se- 
lection of  good  sitting  hens.  Birds  of  the  American 
class  cf  breeds,  such  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks,,  Wyandottes 
and  Rhode  Island  Reds,  usually  make  excellent  hatchers 
and  brooders. 

Asiatic  breeds,  like  Brahmas  and  Cochins  are  per- 
sistent sitters  but  sometimes  are  too  heavy  or  clumsy 
for  the  safety  of  the  eggs. 

Fowls  of  the  Mediterraneean  class,  such  as  the  Leg- 
horns and  Minorcas  rarely  become  broody  until  they  are 
several  years  old.  Though  small  in  size  they  then  make 
good  sitters  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

Hens  that  are  very  nervous,  pugnacious  or  cold 
blooded  should  not  be  chosen  for  the  hatching  of 
chickens. 

SELECTING   AND   FURNISHING   THE    SITTING    PLACE. 

It  is  well  to  set  apart  a  room  or  hen-house  for  the 
exclusive  use  of  the  sitting  hens  during  the  hatching 
season.  If  this  place  has  been  used  for  poultry  or  is 
likely  to  have  harbored  vermin,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  out,  sprayed  with  two  per  cent,  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid  and  fumigated  with  burning  brimstone  be- 
fore using  as  a  hatching  place. 

Ventilation  should  be  provided  for,  so  that  fresh, 
pure  air  will  fill  the  room  continually.  If  the  room  has 
a  window  of  two  sashes,  the  lower  one  may  be  raised 
several  inches  and  a  board  inserted  to  fill  the  space  below 
it.  Fresh  air  can  then  come  in  between  the  two  sashes, 
at  the  middle  of  the  window,  without  danger  of  the  wind 
ever  blowing  directly  upon  the  sitting  hens  or  upon  the 
eggs  in  the  nests  when  the  birds  are  off  feeding.  In  mild 
weather  a  better  plan  is  to  remove  the  sashes  and  cover 
the  window  frame  with  burlap  or  cotton  cloth.  The 
window  space  may  be  protected  by  wire  netting  if  ne- 
cessary. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        61 

The  door  should  have  a  lock  and  be  kept  fastened 
unless  the  place  is  absolutely  safe  from  intrusion. 

The  floor  may  well  be  of  sandy  loam.  A  dusting 
place  should  be  provided  in  the  lightest  part  of  the  room. 

Adjoining  the  room  on  the  sunny  side  make  a  small 
run,  surrounded  and  covered  with  wire  netting.  The 
ground  within  the  enclosure  should  be  in  turf  except  a 
portion  near  the  building,  which  should  be  spaded  up 
to  provide  a  scratching  and  dusting  place  on  pleasant 
days. 

NEAT  AND  NATURAL  NESTS. 

When  a  fowl  makes  her  nest  upon  the  ground  she 
usually  selects  a  hollow  spot  in  some  secluded  place, 
collects  a  few  dry  leaves  or  bits  of  straw  to  line  the 
nest,  lays  her  clutch  of  eggs,  sits  upon  them  comfortably 
and  contentedly  the  allotted  time  and  hatches  all  the 
eggs  into  healthy,  hardy  chicks.  We  may  well  imitate 
her  method  in  order  to  secure  like  excellent  results. 

Take  empty  boxes,  obtainable  at  the  grocery  stores, 
and  place  them  in  rows  on  the  floor  along  the  sides  of 
the  sitting  place,  as  many  as  may  be  needed  for  the 
sitting  hens.  An  egg-case  or  an  orange  box  will  make 
two  nests  for  medium  sized  sitting  hens  or  a  soap  box 
will  make  an  ample  sized  single  nest. 

Each  empty  box  is  turned  upon  its  side,  the  open 
top  thus  becoming  the  front  of  the  nest.  A  strip  of 
board  is  nailed  along  the  front,  with  the  upper  edge 
three  or  four  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the  nest,  to 
keep  the  nesting  material  in  place  and  prevent  the  eggs 
from  rolling  out. 

If  the  floor  is  of  boards  or  concrete,  mellow,  moist 
loam  or  an  inverted  piece  of  grass  turf  may  be  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  each  nest-box.  The  loam  is  hollowed 
out  and  shaped  to  nicely  Ijold  the  eggs  and  have  their 
upper  surface  conform  to  the  contour  of  the  under  part 
of  the  hen's  body. 

If  the  house  has  a  dirt  floor,  hollows  for  the  nests 
may  be  made  in  the  soil  and  the  bottom  boards  of  the 
nest  boxes  removed.  The  bottomless  boxes  are  placed 


62        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

over  the  nest  hollows,  in  which  soft,  short  straw  or  hay 
is  laid  for  the  eggs  to  rest  upon. 

The  front  of  each  nest  should  have  a  little  door  of 
slats  or  wire  netting  to  keep  the  hens  shut  in  when  this 
is  necesary.  A  piece  of  coarse  burlap  sacking  is  pro- 
vided for  each  nest  to  toe  hung  over  the  front  of  the  box 
whenever  it  is  desired  to  make  it  darker  inside  without 
shutting  out  the  fresh  air. 

FURTHER   FURNISHINGS. 

A  galvanized  or  heavy  tin  pail,  large  enough  to  hold 
a  sufficient  supply  of  drinking  water,  is  placed  on  a 
block  or  shelf  raised  several  inches  above  the  floor,  so 
that  the  hens,  when  off  the  nests,  will  not  be  able  to 
scratch  anything  into  tne  water. 

A  clean,  shallow  box  or  trough  is  placed  in  a  con- 
venient position  near  the  window  for  holding  the  daily 
ration  of  whole  grain. 

Everything  in  the  room  should  be  easily  removable 
so  that  it  may  be  taken  out  and  sprayed  or  washed  with 
two  tper  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

SETTING   THE    SITTERS. 

'When  a  trusty  hen  becomes  broody  and  is  to  be 
used  for  incubating,  first  dust  her  thoroughly  with  lice- 
powder,  working  the  fine  dry  dust  among  the  fluffy  fea- 
thers clear  to  the  skin. 

After  dark  is  the  safest  time  for  removing  the  heu 
from  her  laying  nest  to  the  sitting  place.  Two  or  three 
china  eggs  placed  in  the  nest  will  make  it  more  attractive 
to  the  broody  hen.  After  settling  her  gently  in  the  nest 
the  little  door  in  front  is  closed  and  the  burlap  cloth 
hung  over  it. 

Fresh  water  and  whole  corn  (maize)  are  placed  in 
the  room  ready  for  the  morrc-w. 

The  following  day,  towards  evening,  the  burlap  cloth 
and  the  slatted  door  are  removed  from  the  front  of  the 
nest  to  permit  the  hen  to  come  off  and  feed.  If  she  stays 
upon  the  nest  leave  her  until  morning  and  then  try  her 
again.  If  she  does  not  then  come  off  of  her  own  accord, 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE        63 

remove  her  quietly  from  the 'nest  by  sliding  the  hands 
under  her  body,  gently  lifting  and  depositing  her  on  the 
ground.  If,  after  feeding,  drinking  and  dusting,  she  re- 
turns to  her  nest,  it  is  time  to  place  under  her  a  sitting 
of  eggs,  usually  not  more  than  thirteen  and  never  a 
larger  number  than  she  can  cover  completely  and  com- 
fortably. 

It  is  advantageous  to  set  several  hens  at  one  time 
because  on  testing  the  eggs  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  day 
of  incubation,  if  a  number  of  the  eggs  prove  to  be  in- 
fertile or  have  stopped  development  these  may  be  dis- 
carded and  perhaps  leave  one  hen  free  to  be  set  again 
on  fresh  eggs  or  to  be  broken  of  her  broodiness  and  re- 
turned to  the  laying  house.  Further  if  several  hens 
hatch  their  broods  at  the  same  time,  the  chickens  may  be 
given  to  the  care  of  as  many  hens  as  need  be  and  the 
other  sitters  given  fresh  eggs  to  incubate  or  turned  free 
to  prepare  for  further  egg-production. 

When  setting  the  hens  in  the  hatching  house,  place 
a  card  above  each  nest  and  upon  it  record  the  time  of 
setting,  number  and  breed  or  pen  that  produced  the 
eggs,  and  any  special  items  for  future  reference.  Later 
note  on  the  card  the  results  of  the  testing  of  the  eggs 
and  of  any  transfers  of  eggs.  Finally  write  down  the 
results  of  the  hatch.  Preserve  the  card  for  future  use 
in  studying  the  results,  for  guidance  in  mating  the  breed- 
ing stock,  choosing  sitting  hens  and  working  out  further 
progressive  steps  in  poultry  practice. 

Dust  the  sitting  hens  again  at  the  end  of  the  first 
and  second  weeks  of  incubation. 

Test  the  eggs  before  an  egg-tester  on  the  fifth  day 
if  the  eggs  are  white  shelled  or  a  day  or  two  later  if  the 
eggs  have  tinted  shells.  Infertile  eggs  may  be  used  for 
cooking  in  the  household  but  any  eggs  that  have  dead 
embryos  should  be  saved  to  feed  to  the  chicks  that  hatch 
later. 

If  the  air-cells  show  much  enlargement  by  the  fifth 
day  it  will  be  well  to  pour  several  quarts  of  tepid  water 
into  the  loam  at  the  bottom  of  the  nest.  This  will  tend 


64        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

to  increase  the  humidity  of  the  air  surrounding  the 
eggs. 

Allow  the  hens  to  come  off  of  the  nests  daily.  If 
there  are  many  hens  sitting  in  the  room  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  fronts  of  the  nests  closed  and  regularly 
every  morning  open  the  slatted  doors  for  half  an  hour. 
If  any  hens  fail  to  come  off  for  their  daily  feed  they  may 
be  gently  removed  from  the  nests  by  hand.  If  there  are 
too  many  hens  to  be  all  let  out  together,  they  may  be 
set  free  by  squads.  (A  half  hour  is  long  enough  to  allow 
the  hens  to  be  off  the  nests  at  one  time.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  look  to  the  nests  and  see  that  every  one  has  a 
hen  sitting  upon  the  eggs. 

Eggs  under  hens  usually  hatch  out  on  the  twentieth 
day.  The  hens  should  be  left  in  peace  while  the  chicks 
are  coming  out  of  the  shells  and  for  twenty-four  hours 
thereafter. 

ARTIFICIAL   HATCHING. 

If  the  poultryman  desires  to  keep  his  hens  laying 
eggs  or  wishes  to  do  hatching  out  of  season  or  aims  to 
produce  chickens  in  great  numbers  he  usually  resorts 
to  hatching  by  machines. 

Artificial  incubation  has  been  practiced  for  thous- 
ands of  years  as  is  evidenced  by  the  ancient  hatching 
ovens  of  Egypt  and  China.  Mammoth  central  incubating 
plants,  constructed  and  managed  as  of  old,  are  still  to 
be  found  in  these  countries.  Eggs  for  hatching  are 
brought  in  from  all  the  country  around,  are  carefully  in- 
cubated in  charge  of  expert  and  experienced  operators, 
and  the  chicks  are  distributed  over  the  district  to  be 
brooded  and  reared. 

The  plan  of  establishing  large  central  hatcheries  and 
distributing  newly  hatched  chicks  about  the  country  is 
already  in  operation  in  America  but  modern  incubators, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  mammoth  machines,  are 
limited  in  capacity  to  a  few  hundred  eggs.  These  incu- 
bators are  owned  and  operated  by  poultrymen  of  more 
or  less  experience,  and  the  results  show  extreme  varia- 
tion. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE        65 


SELECTING    THE    INCUBATOR. 

The  modern  hatching  machines  are  of  numerous  pat- 
terns but  may  be  grouped  in  two  classes,  those  heated 
by  hot  water  and  those  heated  by  hot  air.  The  source 
of  heat  in  both  classes  Is  usually  a  lamp  burning  petro- 
leum oil. 

In  selecting  an  incubator  for  his  use  the  poultryman 
may  well  consider  carefully  the  following  points: 

1.  The   heating  system  should  be   safe,   of  ample 
power  and  under  perfect  automatic  regulation,  within 
reasonable  limits. 

2.  The  ventilating  system  should  be  capable  of  easy 
adjustment  so  that  the  amount  of  pure  air  positively 
supplied  to  the  eggs  may  be  under  complete  control. 

3.  It  should  be  possible  to  ascertain  and  regulate 
easily  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  of  the 
egg-chamber. 

4.  The  walls  of  the  incubator  should  be  sufficiently 
insulated  to  prevent  the  influence  of  outside  temperature 
causing  uneven  temperatures  on  the  level  of  the  egg- 
trays. 

"5.  The  machine  should  be  made  of  first-class  mater- 
ials and  carefully  constructed. 

6.  The  poultryman  should  have  the  privilege  of 
personally  testing  the  machine  in  operation,  under  the 
conditions  of  his  local  surroundings,  before  the  pur- 
chase is  finally  concluded. 

THE   INCUBATOR  BOOM. 

The  room  in  which  the  incubator  is  operated  should 
hold  an  even  temperature  and  not  be  liable  to  sudden 
fluctuations  because  of  outside  changes  in  the  weather. 

Ventilation  should  be  ample  and  under  control 
so  that  there  will  be  no  liability  of  strong  drafts  of  air 
striking  directly  against  the  lamps  or  the  incubators. 

The  room  should  be  well  lighted  so  that  all  of  the 
operations,  including  the  reading  of  the  thermometers 
in  the  egg-chambers,  can  be  conducted  without  difficulty 
or  discomfort  so  far  as  the  eye-sight  is  concerned.  The 

»•      •*  .  > 


66   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

windows  should  be  provided  with  shades  if  the  sun 
is  liable  to  shine  directly  upon  an  incubator  while  in 
operation. 

SETTING   UP   AND   OPERATING   THE    MACHINES. 

If  it  is  desired  to  hold,  the  manufacturer  of  the  in- 
cubator responsible  for  the  results  in  hatchings,  his 
directions  should  be  followed  in  setting  up  and  running 
the  machine. 

See  that  the  incubator  stands  firm  and  level  in  its 
place.  The  lamp  should  be  clean,  full  of  good  oil  and 
have  a  new,  nicely  fitting  wick.  In  starting  up  use  a 
small  flame  and  heat  the  egg-chamber  gradually.  Adjust 
the  regulator  in  time  to  prevent  the  temperature  rising 
so  high  as  to  crack  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  in  the 
egg-chamber.  Fill  the  lamp  with  oil  daily  and  use  a 
knife-blade  to  remove  the  crust  at  the  top  of  the  wick. 

It  is  well  to  run  the  machine  without  eggs  for  several 
days,  especially  if  it  is  a  new  one,  so  that  it  will  be- 
come nicely  warmed  through,  well  regulated  and  under 
complete  control  of  the  operator,  who  by  this  means 
also  becomes  familiar  with  the  peculiar  characteristics 
of  the  hatcher. 

Incubator  thermometers  are  liable  to  be  inaccurate 
and  to  change  in  the  course  of  months.  They  should  be 
tested  and  corrected  once  a  year.  This  is  readily  done 
by  obtaining  a  physician's  tested,  guaranteed  thermo- 
meter and  comparing  it  with  the  incubator  thermometers. 
Place  the  bulbs  of  all  of  the  thermometers  in  water  of 
about  one  hundred  degrees  warmth  on  the  same  level 
and  note  any  variation  of  an  incubator  thermometer  as 
compared  with  the  clinical  thermometer  (Fahrenheit). 

If  convenient  test  the  temperature  of  the  egg- 
chamber  of  the  machine  on  the  level  of  the  tray  by 
placing  several  thermometers  in  different  positions  all 
on  this  level.  If  the  temperature  at  one  side  of  the 
chamber  is  shown  to  be  lower  than  elsewhere,  raise  that 
part  of  the  tray  until  its  temperature  is  regulated  as 
near  as  may  be  to  correspond  with  the  readings  of  the 
other  thermometers. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        67 

Extinguish  the  flame  of  the  incubator  lamp  an  hour 
or  more  before  the  eggs  are  to  be  placed  in  the  machine. 
Arrange  the  selected  eggs  on  the  trays  and  let  them 
stand  in  the  incubator  room  long  enough  to  gain  its 
temperature.  Then  slide  the  trays  into  place  in  the 
incubator  and  light  the  lamp.  It  is  well  to  begin  incu- 
bating in  the  morning  so  that  the  eggs  and  egg-chamber 
will  have  time  to  warm  up  during  the  day  and  allow 
of  regulation  before  the  operator  retires  for  the  night. 

Do  not  let  the  temperature  on  the  level  of  the  tops 
of  the  eggs  rise  above  101°  for  several  days  and  cer- 
tainly not  above  102°  during  the  first  week.  The  living 
tissues  of  the  embryo  are  delicate  and  the  danger  from 
excessive  heat  in  artificial  incubating  is  very  great. 

Ventilation  of  the  egg-chamber  may  be  restricted 
the  first  few  days,  because  only  a  slight  amount  of  air  is 
required  to  supply  oxygen  for  the  small  net-work  of 
blood-vessels  within  each  live"egg. 

Now  is  the  time  to  supply  extra  moisture  by  means 
of  water  trays  or  wet  sponges  placed  within  the  egg- 
chamber  if  the  air  surrounding  the  eggs  is  at  all  dry. 
If  the  machine  is  warmed  by  means  of  hot  air  moving 
in  a  current  through  the  egg-chamber  it  is  possible  to 
increase  its  humidity  by  sprinkling  the  floor  of  the  room 
plentifully  or  frequently  with  water.  The  moisture 
evaporates  and  is  taken  up  by  the  air  of  the  room  and 
some  of  this  air  after  being  heated  by  the  incubator 
lamp,  passes  into  the  egg-chamber.  The  moisture  in 
the  air  tends  by  its  action  on  the  shells  of  the  eggs,  to 
decrease  the  size  of  the  pores  of  the  shells  and  thus 
diminish  the  supply  of  air  and  therefore  of  oxygen 
passing  into  the  eggs.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  supply  of 
air  may  be  reduced  by  restricting  ventilation  or  by  in- 
creasing the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  chamber  of  the 
incubator. 

Let  the  eggs  remain  on  the  trays  without  moving  for 
three  full  days.  On  the  fourth  day  gently  turn  the  eggs 
by  hand  a  little  and  reverse  the  trays.  On  the  fifth  day 
the  eggs  may  be  rolled  over  and  moved  about  to  change 
their  positions  on  the  trays  besides  reversing  the  trays 


68        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


end  for  end  and  right  for  left.  If  the  eggs  are  tested  on 
this  day  the  regular  turning  may  be  omitted.  Infertile 
eggs  and  any  eggs  that,  before  the  tester,  show  defective 
development  or  weakness,  should  be  removed  from  the 
trays. 

For  the  second  week  the  conditions  of  management 
are  but  little  changed.  The  increasing  systems  of  blood- 
vessels call  for  some  increase  in  ventilation  but  the 
supply  of  air  need  not  be  excessive.  Keep  the  temper- 
ature on  the  level  of  the  tops  of  the  eggs  at  about  102° 
and  certainly  below  103°.  If  the  air  is  dry  keep  the 
water  pans  filled  up  to  the  twelfth  day. 

On  the  fourteenth  day  examine  the  eggs  before  the 
tester  and  throw  out  any  that  fail  to  show  life  or  livli- 
ness  of  the  embryo.  Omit  the  supplying  of  extra  moist- 
ure during  the  last  week  of  incubation.  Keep  the  tem- 
perature at  103°  on  the  level  of  the  tops  of  the  eggs  until 
the  eggs  begin  to  be  pipped,  when  it  may  rise  to  104°  or 
105°  with  good  effect.  If  the  air  is  dry,  extra  moisture 
may  be  placed  in  the  water  pans  or  wet  sponges  may  be 
placed  in  the  hatching  chamber  on  the  twentieth  day. 

Give  full  ventilation  to  provide  abundant  pure  air 
to  the  eggs  during  the  last  seven  days  of  the  period  of 
incubation.  The  egg  is  now  full  of  blood-vessels  and 
much  oxygen  is  required  in  the  rapid  processes  of  growth 
of  the  embryo.  If  the  weather  is  warm  or  sultry  it  will 
be  advisable  to  turn  the  eggs  twice  daily  during  the  last 
week  of  incubation.  The  airing  they  thus  receive  helps 
supply  the  much  needed  oxygen  for  the  multitudinous 
blood-vesels  in  the  eggs. 

On  the  twentieth  day,  if  the  temperature  has  aver- 
aged about  right  and  other  conditions  have  been  kept 
favorable,  the  eggs  will  yield  to  the  peckings  of  their 
inmates  and  allow  the  chicks  to  dry  their  downy  cover- 
ings and  exercise  their  lungs  in  the  free  air.  The  chicks 
drop  from  the  trays  into  the  nursery  and  may  remain 
there  for  one  or  two  days  before  being  removed  to  the 
brooders. 


CHAPTER  IV 
Brooding 

The  successful  brooding  of  chickens  depends  upon 
conditions  which  may  be  divided  into  two  groups. 

One  group  is  the  combination  of  influences  which 
decide  whether  the  chicks  shall  be  well  hatched  or  not. 

The  other  group  includes  the  influences  acting  upon 
the  chicks  during  the  actual  brooding  period  of  their 
lives. 

It  is  not  true  that  the  influences  of  the  first  group 
affect  only  the  embryo  chick  and  cease  to  have  effect 
after  hatching.  On  the  contrary,  chicks  well  hatched 
are  half  brooded. 

LIVELY   AND    LISTLESS    CHICKS. 

The  chicks  themselves  are  the  best  indicators  of 
their  condition  and  of  their  chances  of  future  growth 
to  profitable  age. 

Healthy,  hungry,  vigorous  chicks  that  have  come 
out  of  the  shells  on  time  and  are  decidedly  lively,  will 
grow  thriftily  throughout  the  brooding  period  under 
reasonably  favorable  conditions  of  management. 

Weak,  inactive  chicks  that  appear  sleepy  or  stupid, 
are  thirsty  but  not  hungry,  hug  the  heat  and  walk 
with  tottering  gait,  not  having  been  properly  started 
in  life,  will  dwindle,  diminish  and  die  in  spite  of  per- 
fect conditions  of  brooding.  Even  the  best  of  care  and 
faultless  surrounding  conditions  can  not  save  them, 
and  if  they  could  be  saved  and  grown  they  would  prob- 
ably prove  to  be  profitless  poultry. 

Mistakes  before  Incubation: — Some  of  the  condi- 
tions which  injuriously  affect  the  chicks  during  the 
incubating  period  of  the  eggs  and  reduce  the  chances 
of  successful  growth  during  the  brooding  stage,  are 
the  following:  Using  weak  or  immature  parent  stock, 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 


neglect  of  constitution,  health  and  vigor  of  body-parts 
in  breeding  for  fancy  points,  abuse  of  the  reproductive 
organs  as  in  excessive  egg-laying,  neglect  of  the  facts 
of  breeding,  improper  feeding,  including  rations  that 
are  over-fattening  or  contain  insufficient  nourishment, 
the  use  of  condiments  or  condimental  mixtures,  lack  of 
mineral  constituents  in  the  feeds,  failure  to  supply 
green  food,  carelessness  in  management  resulting  in 
foul  quarters  favorable  to  the  increase  of  lice,  mites 
and  internal  parasites  which  sap  the  vitality  of  the. 
breeding  birds,  permitting  conditions  which  invite  dis- 
ease such  as  drinking  from  barnyard  pools  or  sink- 
drains,  confinement  in  close,  unventilated  houses  or  in 
quarters  where  the  fowls  are  subjected  to  chilling  drafts 
of  wind,  to  excessive  cold  or  depressing  heat,  to  ex- 
tremely moist  air,  to  mud  or  snow  underfoot,  to  lack 
of  sunshine,  to  conditions  that  tempt  them  to  stand 
stupidly  about  rather  than  take  necessary  bodily  exer- 
cise, any  condition,  in  fact,  which  lessens  the  sturdi- 
ness  of  the  breeding  stock. 

Trouble  may  come  from  carelessness  in  collecting 
the  eggs  after  laying  or  in  keeping  them  until  incu- 
bation time.  There  is  danger  in  over-heating  or  freez- 
ing, in  keeping  them  in  a  place  wuere  a  stagnant,  humid 
atmosphere  or  foul  odors  can  affect  the  eggs,  in  allow- 
ing, them  to  age  or  permitting  their  contents  to  partly 
evaporate  because  of  too  dry  or  drafty  atmosphere  and 
in  rough  handling  or  jolting  during  transportation. 

Errors  during  Incubation: — During  the  process  of 
hatching,  influences  which  tend  to  cause  death  in  the 
shell,  if  they  do  not  actually  prevent  hatching,  may 
cause  the  death  of  the  chick  in  the  brooding  period. 

Some  of  these  conditions  or  their  indications  are: 
Too  high  temperature  of  the  egg  at  some  ti-me  during 
the  first  week  of  incubation,  too  much  ventilation  or 
too  little  moisture  in  the  air  surrounding  the  eggs  dur- 
ing the  early  stages  of  incubating,  excess  of  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere  about  the  eggs  during  the  last  week 
of  incubation,  too  great  difference  between  the  temper- 
ature of  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  egg. 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   71 

These  and  any  previously  mentioned  or  other  in- 
fluences that  cause  over-stimulation  or  halting  of  the 
development  of  the  blood-vessels,  folding  back  of  the 
net-work  of  veins  at  the  borders  or  weak  development 
and  growth  of  the  embryo  in  the  egg  may  follow  the 
chick  in  the  brooder  and  defeat  the  purpose  of  the 
poultryman.  Shells  that  are  especially  thick  and  hard 
or  inner  shell  linings  that  are  too  tough,  lack  of  proper 
temperature,  and  deficiency  of  ventilation  or  of  moisture 
at  hatching  time  may  cause  exhaustion,  weakening,  or 
crippling  of  the  chick.  Failure  to  properly  enclose  the 
yolk  and  heal  the  navel  and  delayed  or  dilatory  hatch- 
ing are  signs  of  weakness. 

If  any  one  or  several  of  these  influences  have  re- 
sulted in  the  hatching  of  weaklings  or  of  chicks  defec- 
tive in  any  way,  apparent  or  nonapparent,  the  chances 
of  satisfactory  growth  in  the  brooder  are  small.  Suc- 
cess in  brooding  calls  for  whole,  healthy,  normally  de- 
veloped chicks  in  starting.  Their  heredity  and  hatch- 
ing must  be  favorable  to  life  and  growth.  The  chick 
has  a  full  chance  only  when  its  inheritances  are  of  the 
best.  Heredity  is  the  foundation  with  prepotency  for 
the  corner-stone.  The  structure  rising  from  this  foun- 
dation because  of  life,  shaped  and  cemented  together 
by  environment  and  the  exercise  of  functions  should 
not  be  disappointing. 

BEGINNING  BROODING. 

After  the  chicks  are  hatched  they  should  have  no 
food  given  them  for  forty-eight,  or  better  sixty,  or  best 
seventy  hours. 

The  perfectly  formed,  properly  hatched  chick  has, 
during  the  last  stages  of  incubation,  enclosed  within 
its  abdomen  the  yolk  that  remains  and  is  thus  pro- 
vided with  food  sufficient  for  all  meals  during  several 
days. 

The  yolk  within  the  abdomen  connects  by  what  ap- 
pears like  a  small,  short  tube  with  the  intestinal  canal. 
If  a  dead  chick  be  opened  and  examined  a  day  or  two 


72        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


after  hatching  It  will  be  seen  that  the  yellowish  fluid 
of  the  yolk  is  passing  from  the  yolk  through  the  connect- 
ing tube  into  the  digestive  system  and  some  of  it  ap- 
pears to  be  working  back  to  the  gizzard. 

This  yolk 'nutriment  is  digested  and  furnishes  suf- 
ficient sustenance  for  the  chick  during  several  days. 
The  chicks  are  thus  given  ample  opportunity  to  collect 
grains  of  sand  or  gravel  and  pass  them  down  the  diges- 
tive tract  to  the  gizzard,  there  to  be  utilized  as  mill- 
stones for  grinding  the  fibrous  grains  and  other  hard 
foods  to  be  eaten  later. 

It  is  right  to  supply  the  chicks,  immediately  after 
hatching,  with  bright,  attractive  bits  of  grit  for  this 
purpose.  Pure,  fresh  water  may  also  be  placed  within 
reach  and  kept  at  hand  so  that  they  can  drink  at  will. 
Simply  grit  and  water  is  their  proper  fare  for  the  first 
three  days  and  by  this  seeming  starvation  is  avoided 
the  danger  of  digestive  disorders  which  might  have 
fatal  results. 

If  through  mistaken  kindness  the  attendant  begins 
feeding  the  chicks  promptly  after  hatching,  they  are 
liable  to  get  kernels  of  grain  in  the  gizzard  before  the 
grinding  stones  are  in  place.  Worse  than  this,  if  the 
digestive  tract  is  filled  with  food  eaten  by  the  chick, 
the  flow  of  the  contents  of  the  yolk  into  the  intestinal 
canal  is  diminished  or  stopped.  The  yolk  instead  of 
dwindling  to  minute  size  or  vanishing  after  a  week  or 
more,  remains  large,  its  contents  ferment,  and  the  chick 
suffers  a  lingering  death. 

The  poultryman  should  satisfy  himself  by  personal 
examination,  as  to  these  points.  If  chicks  die  or  are 
killed  by  accident,  open  them  and  make  a  study  of  this 
matter  of  yolk  absorption.  The  skin  of  the  abdomen  *s 
easily  torn  open  by  the  fingers  and  the  yolk,  intestines 
and  gizzard  exposed  to  view.  If,  after  the  chick  is  a 
week  old,  the  yolk  remains  large  and  full  or  is  distended 
with  thin  liquid  and  gases,  fermentation  has  been  pro- 
ducing poisons  fatal  to  the  chick's  life.  If  after  the 
chick  is  two  weeks  old,  the  yolk  is  not  to  be  found  or 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        73 

appears  as  a  little,  shrivelled,  hard,  dark  yellow  or  light 
brownish  pellet  of  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  death  has  not 
come  to  the  chick  because  of  the  yolk's  non-absorption. 

CHILLING  THE  CHICKS. 

When  eggs  are  hatched  by  the  natural  method,  the 
mother  hen,  if  left  to  herself  will  remain  on  the  nest 
for  a  day  or  more,  after  the  chicks  are  out  of  the  shells. 
During  the  first  days  after  leaving  the  nest  she  hovers 
her  brood  frequently,  especially,  if  the  weather  is  chilly. 
There  is  practically  no  danger  of  chilling  the  chicks. 
When  artificially  hatched  there  is  no  excuse  for  suffer- 
ing them  to  get  chilled. 

That  they  will  stand  considerable  change  is  abund- 
antly proved  by  the  fact  that  newly  hatched  chicks  have 
been  sent  safely  by  express  several  thousands  of  miles 
during  changeable  spring  weather. 

Nevertheless,  chilling  of  the  chicks  is  to  be  care- 
fully guarded  against  because  when  it  does  occur,  it  Is 
usually  fatal  in  its  results.  It  is  a  cause  of  discomfort, 
induces  crowding  and  piling  up  together,  with  resulting 
suffocation  of  the  chicks  that  go  under.  Chilling  is  one 
of  the  most  fruitful  causes  of  diarrhea  and  other  diges- 
tive disorders,  of  halting  in  growth,  of  irregular  feath- 
ering and  too  often  of  lingering  existence  ending  in  a 
miserable  death. 

THE    NATURAL    METHOD    OF    BROODING. 

Feeding  the  sitting  hen  with  whole  corn  (maize) 
and  allowing  her  to  drink  water  while  the  chicks  are 
coming  out  of  the  shells  and  for  a  day  thereafter,  will 
help  to  keep  her  contented  and  enable  the  chicks  to  get 
well  dried  off  and  strong  upon  their  feet.  The  hen  may 
usually  be  left  to  decide  herself,  when  to  come  off  with 
her  brood. 

She  should  not,  and  usually  will  not,  lead  her  little 
ones  far  the  first  day  after  leaving  the  nest.  She  will 
scratch  about,  within  a  short  distance  of  the  nest  and 
stop  to  hover  her  chicks  frequently.  The  force  of  habit 


74   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

may  perhaps  lead  her  to  seek  out  her  former  range  if  it 
is  not  too  distant.  If  she  is  inclined  to  wander  too  far 
or  to  travel  too  rapidly  for  the  strength  of  her  little 
ones,  she  should  be  somewhat  restrained  or  watched. 

The  Freedom  of  the  Place: — It  is  fortunate  if  the 
mother  hen  and  her  flock  can  be  allowed  to  roam  at  will 
about  the  place  or  within  a  large  enclosure  free  from 
serious  danger  of  enemies  and  where  there  is  grass  land 
as  well  as  tillage.  It  is  only  necessary  then,  to  provide 
a  simple  shelter,  where  the  hen  may  safely  hover  her^ 
brood  at  night  or  when  the  weather  is  unfavorable. 

The  mother  hen  should  not  be  permitted  to  lead  her 
chicks,  while  very  young,  into  tall  grass  or  growing 
grain  wet  with  heavy  dews  or  rain.  The  hen  and  chicks 
will  obtain  considerable  food  in  the  natural  way  by 
ranging  and  scratching  for  it.  Seeds,  grains,  insects, 
worms,  grubs  and  green  grass  obtained  in  small  amounts 
at  frequent  intervals  with  the  accompanying  large 
amount  of  bodily  exercise,  conduce  to  healthy  natural 
growth. 

If  necessary  the  supply  of  food  may  be  supplemented 
especially  towards  sundown,  so  that  the  chicks  shall 
close  the  day's  foraging  with  full  crops.  Fresh  drinking 
water  should  always  be  at  hand,  easily  obtainable. 

THE  CHICK    COOP. 

Shelters  for  hens  with  chicks  are  simple  affairs. 
Many  broods  have  had  for  their  homes  common  barrels 
or  boxes.  An  empty  barrel  laid  upon  its  side  with  one 
end  open,  the  other  end  closed  and  Braised  several  inches 
above  the  ground  to  prevent  water  from  rains  standing 
in  it,  has  often  been  made  to  answer  the  purpose. 

If  there  be  danger  of  rats  or  other  animals  disturb- 
ing the  hen  or  stealing  the  chicks  at  night  the  open  end 
of  the  barrel  may  be  protected  by  a  frame  covered  with 
one-inch  mesh  wire  netting. 

Another  plan  is  to  make  two  coops  of  a  barrel  that 
has  a  good  head  and  bottom  by  cutting  the  barrel  into 
halves.  After  sawing  it  across  at  the  middle,  each  half 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   75 

is  set  upon  its  cut  end.     The  coop  thus  made  may  be 
tilted-  on  one  side  sufficiently  to  allow  the  hen  and  chicks 


WHITK    WYANDOTTE 
Courtesy  of  H.  H.  Benjamin 

to  enter  or  pass  out.    By  cutting  one  or  two  staves  eight 
or  ten  inches  above  the  ground,  a  little  door  may  be 


76   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 


provided  for  entrance  and  exit.  Inch  holes  bored  in  the 
staves  near  the  top  of  the  improvised  coop  allow  of  ven- 
tilation without  strong  drafts. 

It  is  possible,  in  many  places,  to  obtain  empty  dry 
goods  boxes,  grocery  boxes  or  shoe  boxes  at  small  ex- 
pense. These  will  furnish  lumber  for  making  coops 
which  are  both  economical  and  effective.  If  the  poul- 
tryman  is  not  too  particular  he  may,  for  example,  take 
a  common  shoe  box  about  four  feet  in  length  and  nearly 
two  feet  in  depth  and  width  and  make  two  coops  of  it. 
The  box  is  sawed  across  the  middle  slanting  so  that 
when  the  two  parts  are  set  on  their  ends  and  the 
slanting  part  boarded,  each  coop  has  a  single  pitch  roof. 
The  boards  which  form  the  front  of  the  coop  as  it 
stands  after  sawing,  are  taken  to  make  the  roof  and  if 
covered  with  tarred  paper  or  roofing  paper  will  shed 
rain  water  satisfactorily.  A  frame  covered  with  lat- 
tice or  with  inch-mesh  wire  netting  will  answer  for  the 
front  of  the  coop.  A  shelter  board  may  be  made  for 
the  front  of  the  coop  in  case  storms  are  liable  to  drive 
rain  into  the  coop  when  it  is  occupied  by  the  hen  and 
chicks.  Such  a  board  is  also  useful  to  shade  the  coop 
from  too  hot  sunshine  if  the  hen  is  confined  .in  it  dur- 
ing sultry  days  in  summer. 

The  common  A  shaped  chicken  coop,  constructed  of 
boards,  makes  a  sensible  and  satisfactory  shelter.  Such 
coops  may  be  made  by  anyone  who  can  use  a  saw  and 
hammer.  The  lumber  of  a  dry  goods  box  will  supply 
the  materials.  (Such  a  coop  may  well  be  made  of  sep- 
arate parts  and  these  parts  fastened  together  by  hooks 
and  screw-eyes.  The  coop  may  be  made  of  a  size  which 
allows  of  the  use  of  the  boards  of  the  dry  goods  box  to 
best  advantage.  It  will  not  be  far  from  right  if,  for 
instance  its  width  at  the  ground,  its  heighth  from  ground 
to  peak  and  its  depth  from  front  to  back  are  each  two 
and  one-half  feet.  Two  sides  are  made  three  feet  by 
two  and  one-half  feet.  A  triangular  board  back  is  made, 
three  by  three  by  two  and  one-half  feet.  A  triangular 
frame  of  the  same  size,  for  the  front  is  covered  with  ver- 
tical strips  of  lath  or  with  wire  netting. 


PROG    ESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        77 

These  separate  parts  are  placed  in  position  and  at- 
tached by  screws  or  held  firmly  together  by  hooks  and 
screw-eyes.  When  not  in  use  the  coop  may  be  "knocked 
down,"  the  parts  packed  together  and  stored  in  some 
convenient  place,  until  again  needed.  A  board  platform 
is  a  good  thing  to  provide  for  such  a  coop.  It  may  be 
made  three  by  three  and  one-half  feet  so  as  to  project 
a  foot  in  front  of  the  coop.  The  front  projection  makes 
a  good  feeding  and  watering  place.  The  flooring  stops 
the  entrance  of  rats,  skunks,  etc.,  by  burrowing  under 
the  coop.  It  also  prevents  the  hen  (if  she  is  inclined 
to  scratch  the  earth  too  much)  from  covering  her  little 
chicks  with  soil  and  burying  them  alive.  It  keeps  the 
coop  dry  under  foot.  If  the  hen  is  confined  within  the 
coop  in  the  day-time  it  may  be  well  to  place  it  on  the 
ground  after  the  chicks  get  to  running  freely  outside. 
A  shelter  for  the  front  of  the  coop  may  be  made  of 
boards  to  use  whenever  protection  is  needed  against 
storms,  winds  or  sunshine.  This  may  be  three  f:et  by 
three  feet. 

Ventilation  of  the  coop  is  provided  by  the  slatted 
or  wire-covered  front  and  by  half  inch  or  one  inch  holes 
bored  in  the  back  piece  of  the  coop  near  the  peak.  If  a 
larger  hole  is  made  for  ventilation  it  should  be  covered 
with  a  piece  of  wire  window  screening  to  keep  out  rats. 
If  the  hen  must  be  kept  confined  her  quarters  should  be 
roomy  and  airy.  If  cats  are  likely  to  catch  the  chickens 
these  sly  enemies  must  be  disabled  or  the  chicks  furn- 
ished with  runs  completely  protected  by  wire  netting. 
If  a  covered  yard  becomes  necessary  it  should  be  as  large 
as  is  conveniently  possible.  It  is  a  good  plan,  usually 
to  place  several  hens,  with  chicks  hatched  at  about  the 
same  time,  in  coops  quite  near  together,  allowing  the 
chicks  to  mingle  freely.  A  large  covered  run  will  thus 
accommodate  several  broods  and  the  hens  will  not  be 
so  likely  to  attack  and  destroy  chicks  of  other  broods 
than  their  own. 

Sometimes  frames  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  high 
and  of  any  convenient  length  and  wi£th  are  covered 
with  wire  netting  and  used  as  runs  for  the  chicks.  These 


78   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 

frames  and  the  coops  may  be  moved  once  a  week  or 
oftener  so  as  to  provide  fresh  ground  for  the  chicks. 
Their  runs  should  include  both  turf  and  tilled  soil  if 
possible.  Thus  they  are  able  to  get  fresh  growing  grass 
for  green  food  and  can  scratch  in  the  fresh  turned  soil 
for  grubs  and  worms.  They  also  like  to  wallow  in  the 
mellow  dirt  and,  by  their  dust  baths,  they  reduce  the 
chances  of  annoyance  by  body-lice.  The  chicks  are 
allowed  to  run  with  the  hen  until  well  feathered. 

ABTIFICIAL  METHODS  OF  BROODING. 

Whether  hatched  under  hens  or  in  machines,  chicks 
may  be  brooded  artificially.  The  essential  requisite  is 
to  have  them  well  hatched.  If  hatched  by  hens  and  it 
is  desired  to  set  the  hens  again  on  fresh  eggs  there  is  an 
evident  advantage  in  having  the  means  at  hand  for 
brooding  the  chicks  artificially.  Whether  this  shall  be 
done  by  means  of  small  indoor  or  outdoor  machine 
mothers,  by  using  a  brooder  house  having  hovers  warm- 
ed by  a  hot  water  pipe  system,  by  keeping  the  chicks  in 
rooms  heated  by  steam  radiators  (or  stoves)  or  by  any 
other  method  depends  upon  the  poultryman,  the  loca- 
tion, the  availabilities  and  the  object  in  growing  the 
chickens. 

Whatever  system  is  followed  the  essential  factors, 
so  far  as  shelter  is  concerned,  are  temperature,  ventila- 
tion and  moisture,  which  must,  for  successful  brooding, 
be  always  under  complete  control. 

To  secure  uninterrupted  growth  the  chicks  must  be 
kept  continuously  comfortable,  they  must  have  abund- 
ance of  pure  air  without  direct  drafts  blowing  upon 
them  and  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  should  be 
neither  excessive  nor  deficient.  Cleanliness  in  the  brood- 
ing quarters  is  necessary.  The  banishment  of  mites, 
lice  and  disease  germs  is  very  important.  Security,  com- 
fort and  convenience  are  the  attendant  conditions  of 
successful,  satisfactory  brooding  of  little  chicks.  We 
seek  to  secure  by  artificial  means  all  of  the  essential, 
favorable  conditions  which  attend  a  brood  of  chicks  un- 
der the  care  of  the  mother  hen,  free  to  range  out  of 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   79 

doors  during  the  months  of  May  or  June  in  the  temper- 
ate zone. 

INDOOR    AND    OUTDOOR    BROODERS. 

It  is  not  wise  to  place  artificial  brooders  out  doors 
until  the  weather  is  settled  and  comfortable.  So-called 
"out-door  brooders"  are  better  placed  indoors  or  under 
sufficient  shelter  for  the  comfort  of  the  chicks  and  the 
convenience  of  their  attendant.  The  shed  or  house  or 
shelter  of  whatever  kind  need  not  be  expensive  but 
should  protect  from  severe  cold,  storms,  harsh  winds 
and  every  discomfort  of  unfavorable  weather.  The 
chicks  should  be  induced  by  conditions  of  comfort  and 
attractiveness  outside  the  brooder,  to  keep  away  from 
the  hover  and  out  of  the  confinement  of  the  brooder  as 
much  as  possible. 

Individual  brooders  are  usually  warmed  by  means 
of  hot  water  or  hot  air  maintained  at  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature  by  means  of  lamps  using  kerosene  oil.  If 
the  attendant  can  be  at  hand  to  look  to  the  temperature, 
frequently,  regulation  can  be  maintained  by  increasing 
or  reducing  the  lamp-flame  according  to  the  conditions. 
If  the  attendant  must  be  absent  for  hours  at  a  time  auto- 
matic regulation  should  be  secured  by  means  of  a  ther- 
mostat as  in  the  case  of  an  incubator.  In  a  cold  climate 
or  in  cold  weather  a  machine  heated  by  hot  water  and 
ventilated  by  pure  warmed  air,  having  ample  lamp  pow- 
er for  both  purposes  and  under  complete  control  should 
shelter  the  chicks  satisfactorily. 

Avoid  brooders  that  are  too  small,  and  such  as  have 
dark  hoyers  and  cold  corners.  Secure  a  machine  having 
a  safe  lamp  easily  operated. 

Use  a  new  or  certainly  clean  brooder,  a  clean  lamp, 
fresh  wick  and  good  oil.  If  the  brooder  has  been  prev- 
iously used,  expose  it,  open  to  the  air  and  sunshine  out 
of  doors,  for  a  week  before  using  it  to  brood  chickens. 

In-door  brooders  are  intended  for  use  only  in  brood- 
er houses  or  where  they  are  amply  protected  from  un- 
comfortable weather.  Out-door  brooders  may  be  used 


80        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 


outside  when  the  season   is   sufficiently  advanced   and 
mild  weather  is  prevailing. 

STARTING  AND  RUNNING  THE  BROODERS. 

About  the  time  the  eggs  in  the  incubator  are  begin- 
ning to  be  pipped  the  heat  should  be  started  in  the 
brooders  or  brooder  house  so  that  they  may  become  well 
warmed  and  properly  regulated  by  the  time  the  chicks 
are  ready  for  brooding.  A  temperature  of  about  90°  at 
a  height  of  two  or  three  inches  above  the  floor  of  the 
hover  should  be  secured  and  maintained  for  the  first 
week  of  brooding.  Gradually  the  temperature  is  low- 
ered until  at  the  end  of  the  second  week  it  may  stand 
at  about  80°  and  at  the  end  of  the  third  week  70°  should 
be  sufficiently  high.  The  chicks  themselves  will  be  the 
best  indicators  however  and  a  temperature  should  be 
maintained  which  certainly  keeps  them  comfortable. 

Before  the  chicks  are  placed  in  the  brooder,  the 
floor  of  the  hover  or  of  the  whole  brooder  may  be  cov- 
ered with  thick  paper  or  several  layers  of  newspapers. 
The  purpose  is  to  remove  and  replenish  the  floor  paper 
when  cleaning  out  the  hover  and  brooder  weekly.  Upon 
the  paper  place  two  or  three  inches  depth  of  sand  or 
mellow  sandy  loam.  Over  this  strew  a  layer  of  chaff, 
short  cut  straw  or  better  fine  cut  clover  hay  or  best  of 
all  alfalfa  leaves  one  or  two  inches  deep.  The  chicks 
having  been  kept  comfortably  under  the  sitting  hens  or 
in  the  nursery  of  the  incubator  for  one,  two  or  three 
days  are  ready  for  removal  to  the  brooder. 

If  the  chicks  must  be  carried  some  distance  in  cold 
or  windy  weather  provide  baskets  lined  inside  with 
flannel  and  furnished  with  covers.  The  chicks  taken 
from  the  nursery  of  the  incubator  or  from  under  the  sit- 
ting hens  are  placed  in  the  baskets,  covered  and  carried 
quickly  to  the  brooders.  Here  they  are  promptly  placed 
about  fifty  in  a  lot,  in  the  warm  hovers.  This  may  well 
be  done  in  the  morning. 

Artificial  Mothering:— For  the  following  few  hours 
the  attendant  should  be  at  hand  and  watchful  of  the 
little  fluffy  fellows.  The  machine  mother  can  not  "cluck" 


PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE   81 


and  the  chicks  have  to  be  trained  to  go  under  the  hover 
for  warmth.  The  space  allowed  outside  the  hover,  the 
first  day  should  be  small.  A  board  set  on  edge  in  front 
of  the  hover  and  confining  the  chicks  to  a  space  within 
one  foot  of  the  hover  curtain  will  be  large  enough.  The 
chicks  are  thus  prevented  from  wandering  too  far  from 
the  warm  hover. 

Sometimes,  if  no  board  confines  them  near  the  hov- 
er, they  run  out  into  the  exercising  compartment  of  the 
brooder  and  collect  in  a  place  that  the  sun  shines  upon, 
finding  thus  a  pleasing  substitute  for  the  mother  hen's 
hovering.  When  the  sun  moves  away,  however,  th« 
chicks  are  likely  to  stay  in  the  same  spot,  having  for- 
gotten the  warm  hover.  If  they  feel  chilly  they  begin 
to  crowd  together  and  may  pile  upon  each  other  in  their 
efforts  to  keep  warm  by  contact  with  one  another.  If 
this  crowding  continues  some  of  the  chicks  are  liable 
to  go  under  .and  become  suffocated  or  crushed  to  death. 
If  this  occurs  in  a  corner  of  the  brooder  where  there  is 
the  least  chance  to  escape  the  crush,  many  of  the  chicks 
may  become  injured  or  killed. 

Careful  attention  the  first  day  easily  prevents  such 
accidents.  The  little  chicks  may  be  readily  trained  to 
run  under  the  hover  when  they  wish  to  warm  up.  When- 
ever they  run  out  into  the  exercising  space  and  begin  to 
bunch  together  and  crowd  each  other  it  is  time  to  gently 
push  them  back  under  the  hover.  Repeating  this  oper- 
ation a  few  times  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  teach  them 
the  way  to  find  warmth  and  comfort. 

,  By  the  second  day  they  should  be  well  enough 
trained  so  that  they  may  be  given  the  run  of  the  brood- 
er. 

After  having  learned  where  to  find  the  warm  hover 
it  is  desirable  that  they  remain  in  it  as  little  as  possible, 
going  there  in  the  day  time  only  to  warm  up  when 
necessary.  The  temperature  of  the  brooder  outside  the 
hover  may  well  be  kept  high  enough  so  that  the  chicks 
running  about  and  scratching  in  the  chaff*  and  sand  keep 
comfortable  without  hovering.  To  encourage  this  ac- 


82        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


tivity  of  the  chicks  the  brooding  arrangements  in  cold 
weather  may  well  include  four  degrees,  of  shelter. 

1.  A  hover  artificially  warmed  and  always  of  a  tem- 
perature sufficiently  high  to  take  the  place  of  the  hover- 
ing hen. 

2.  A  comfortable  exercising  space  within  the  brood- 
er or  brooder-house. 

3.  An  exercising  place  outside  of  the  brooder  or 
house  but  enclosed  at  the  sides  with  boards  one  to  two 
feet  high  and  covered  by  a  glass  sash,  such  for  example 
as  is  used  for  hot-beds.     In  this  place  on  pleasant  days 
even  though  the  wind  is  blowing,  the  chicks  may  get  the 
benefit  of  the  direct  sunshine. 

4.  An  outdoor  yard  where  the  chicks  can  run  and 
scratch  in  dry  litter  when  the  weather  permits. 

We  thus  give  the  chicks  a  choice  of  conditions  that 
are  attractive  and  inviting  whatever  kind  of  weather 
is  prevailing. 

Exercise,  sunshine  and  fresh  air  are  wonderful  pro- 
moters of  health,  vigor  and  growth. 

Ventilation: — The  hover  should  be  well  ventilated 
if  the  chicks  rest  there  through  the  nights. 

A  brooder  is  defective  if  it  does  not  provide  for  the 
drawing  in  of  fresh  air  which  is  then  warmed  and  forced 
with  a  constant  slow  flow  into  the  hover.  The  air  of  the 
hover  carrying  the  products  of  the  respiration  of  the 
chicks  should  be  gradually  but  continuously  moving  out 
of  the  hover.  This  movement  of  air  into  and  out  of  the 
hover,  should  be  without  direct  drafts  striking  upon  the 
chicks  and  causing  them  to  catch  cold.  If  a  brooder 
has  no  system  of  forced  ventilation  its  cover  should*  be 
left  partly  open.  If  this  tends  to  cool  off  the  hover  too 
much,  at  night,  more  heat  must  be  supplied  by  a  higher 
lamp  flame.  The  chicks  must  certainly  have  fresh  air 
and  that  without  discomfort  or  danger. 

Moisture: — Some  thought  should  be  given  to  the 
matter  of  moisture  in  the  environment  of  the  chicks. 
The  extremes  of  dryness  and  wetness  are  to  be  avoided 
and  a  happy  medium  condition  of  humidity  maintained 
if  the  birds  in  the  brooder  are  to  do  their  best.  Stag- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        83 

nant  moisture  or  excess  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere 
and  under  foot  tends  to  decomposition  and  decay,  to 
fungous  growth,  moldiness  and  the  development  of  bad 
odors  and  filthiness.  It  favors  the  growth  of  disease 
germs.  The  chicks  are  liable  to  catch  cold  under  such 
conditions  and  serious  sickness  may  result.  On  the 
other  hand  excessive  dryness  of  the  air  and  especially  of 
the  floor  boarding  and  of  the  sand  upon  it  particularly 
if  there  is  artificial  heat  beneath  the  flooring,  tends  to 
drying  out  and  shrinking  of  the  feet  and  shanks  of  the 
little  chicks.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  keep  the  sand  of 
the  brooder  or  of  the  exercising  place  outside  the  brood- 
er, wet  in  one  or  more  places.  The  chicks  will  spend 
some  time  standing  or  scratching  in  the  moist  spots  if 
they  find  them  attractive  and  the  water  continually 
evaporating  will  help  to  keep  the  atmosphere  from  get- 
ting too  dry.  Good  ventilation  should  accompany  mois- 
ture, causing  it  to  keep  in  motion  and  preventing  stag- 
nation. 

Cleanliness: — Watchfulness  is  necessary  in  the  care 
of  the  brooders  to  avoid  everything  tending  to  unhealthy 
and  unthrifty  conditions.  If  a  chick  dies  in  the  hot 
hover  it  should  be  quickly  removed.  The  hover  should 
have  fine  sand  or  sandy  loam  strewn  on  the  floor  daily. 
Once  a  week  the  brooder  should  be  cleaned  out  and  fresh 
litter  put  in.  To  destroy  disease  germs  and  parasites 
in  the  brooder  use  a  spray  pump  or  a  whisk  broom  to 
sprinkle  the  interior  parts  with  a  two  per  cent,  solution 
of  carbolic  acid  or  fumigate  the  empty,  tightly  closed 
brooder  with  burning  brimstone. 

On  pleasant  days  remove  the  hover  covers  and  lay 
them  underside  up,  out  of  doors,  in  the  sunshine,  at  mid- 
day for  several  hours.  If  body-lice  get  upon  the  chicks, 
dust  them  clear  to  the  skin  with  fresh,  fin©  Pyre  thrum 
powder  (Persian  Insect  Powder,  obtainable  at  drug 
shops). 

FEEDING    LITTLE    CHICKS. 

White  or  bright  chick  grit,  grains  of  vcoarse  sand  or 
fine  gravel  or  granulated  bone  may  be  strewn  on  a -board 


84   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 


and  placed  in  front  of  the  hen  sitting  on  the  nest  or 
upon  the  floor  of  the  incubator  nursery  soon  after  the 
chicks  are  hatched.  Drinking  water  in  a  shallow  dish 
may  also  be  placed  where  they  can  get  to  it.  The  dish 
may  be  partly  covered  or  have  a  stone  or  piece  of  clean 
brick  placed  in  it  to  prevent  the  chicks  getting  into  the 
water  or  spilling  it.  As  has  already  been  stated  no  food 
need  be  given  the  chicks  for  the  first  three  days  of  their 
lives  because  they  have  the  egg-yolk  enclosed  within 
the  abdomen  and  should  draw  from  that  all  the  nourish 
men"  they  need  for  several  days. 

On  the  fourth  day  regular  rations  may  begin.  For 
the  first  two  weeks  feed  frequently  but  not  enough  at  one 
time  to  cram  their  crops  except  at  the  last  feeding  each 
day  before  they  are  hovered  for  the  night. 

The  Foods: — The  rations  should  surely  include 
grains,  green  food,  meat  or  other  protein  food  and  min- 
eral food.  The  grain  food  may  be  wheat,  Indian  corn, 
oats,  barley,  millet,  kafir  corn,  rice  or  such  products  as 
bread,  crackers,  corn  cake  and  shredded  wheat  biscuit 
remnants.  For  green  food  there  is  nothing  better  than 
fresh  growing  grass,  clover,  alfalfa  or  young  growing 
grain.  Lettuce  and  cabbage  leaves  are  excellent.  Chop- 
ped onion  tops  and  bulbs  are  good.  In  winter  cured 
clover  or  alfalfa  leaves  are  especially  good  substitutes 
for  fresh  grass.  Protein  or  muscle-making  food  may  be 
supplied  in  the  form  of  hard-boiled  eggs  (tested  out  of 
the  incubator),  granulated  beef  scraps,  animal  meal, 
evaporated  granulated  butter  milk,  skim  milk  curds 
(cottage  cheese)  or  finely  cut  fresh  bone. 

Mineral  food  is  supplied  to  some  extent  by  the  ash 
constituents  of  the  grains  and  green  foods  but  large 
amounts  of  phosphate  of  lime  are  needed  In  forming 
the  skeletons  of  the  growing  chicks  and  this  is  amply 
supplied  by  providing  grit  in  the  form  of  granulated  bone 
or  by  feeding  fresh  cut  bone. 

Balancing  the  Ration: — In  order  to  promote  the  best 
growth  of  the  chicks  they  should  be  supplied  with  ra- 
tions which  furnish  the  nutrients  for  growing  flesh, 
bone,  nerves,  brains,  etc.,  in  the  right  proportions.  If 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        85 

the  rations  are  not  balanced  not  only  is  there  failure  to 
make  the  best  growth  but  digestive  disorders  are  likely 
to  result.  A  mixture  of  dry  feed-stuffs  balanced  for 
feeding  to  growing  chicks  may,  for  example,  be  com- 
posed of  wheat  3  Ibs.,  Indian  corn  3  Ibs.,  beef  scraps  (con- 
taining 50  per  cent  of  digestible  protein)  2  Ibs.,  clover 
hay  2  Ibs.  Here  in  ten  pounds  of  feed  are  six  pounds 
of  grains,  two  pounds  of  meat  food  and  two  pounds  of 
(dried)  green  food.  Other  grains  may  take  the  place 
of  the  wheat  or  corn  without  very  much  disturbing  the 
balance.  The  feed-stuffs  should  be  wholesome  and  pal- 
atable, never  fermented,  musty  or  decayed. 

Methods  of  Feeding: — Whatever  the  feeds  or  man- 
ner of  feeding,  fresh  water  and  grit  should  be  always  at 
hand.  Granulated  bone-charcoal  or  wood-charcoal  may 
also  be  kept  before  the  chicks.  Green  food  is  furnished 
by  the  clover  or  alfalfa  leaves,  chaff  or  finely  cut  hay 
strewn  on  the  sand  in  the  brooder,  if  green  grass  is  out 
of  season.  Cut  clover  or  alfalfa  or  alfalfa  meal  may  be 
kept  in  a  hopper  before  the  chicks. 

During  the  early  days  of  brooding  cracked  wheat, 
finely  cracked  corn,  coarse  oatmeal,  oat  flakes,  millet,  or 
broken  rice  may  be  scattered  in  the  chaff,  or  placed  on 
boards  in  the  exercising  compartment  of  the  brooder  or 
within  reach  of  the  chicks  if  they  are  brooded  by  a  hen. 
Eggs  that  failed  to  hatch  may  be  boiled,  cut  fine, 
shells  and  all  and  given  to  the  chicks.  By  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  week,  beef  scraps  may  take  the  place 
of  the  eggs.  By  this  time  the  chicks  will  also  be  ready 
to  eat  whole  wheat.  While  it  is  well  daily  to  scatter 
some  of  the  grains  or  seeds  in  the  chaff  or  about  the 
runs  to  induce  the  chicks  to  hunt  and  scratch  for  a  part 
of  their  living  the  major  part  of  the  rations  may  be 
fed  in  hoppers.  These  are  made  of  galvanized  iron  or 
of  thin  boards  and  provide  compartments  for  each  kind 
of  feed-stuff  used,  besides  granulated  bone  or  other  grit, 
granulated  bone  charcoal  or  wood  charcoal  and  crushed 
oyster  shells.  The  hopper  is  hung  against  the  wall  of 
the  brooder  or  brooder  house  high  enough  for  easy 


86        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


feeding.  Wire  netting  of  one-inch  mesh  may  be  placed 
over  the  feed  box  of  the  hopper  to  prevent  the  birds 
scattering  the  feeds.  By  this  plan  the  chicks  can  soon 
be  trained  to  balance  their  own  rations,  without  over 
eating  of  any  one  kind  •  of  food. 

No  wet  soft  foods  are  given  them.  By  taking  their 
rations  in  natural  dry  forms  the  gizzard  is  compelled  to 
fulfil  its  function  and  grind  the  feed  to  pulp.  The  food 
being  balanced  does  not  cause  over  working  of  the  liver 
and  digestive  disorders  are  avoided. 


LIGHT   BRAHMA 
Courtesy  Bradbury  &  Bradbury 


CHAPTER  V 

• 

Growing  Chickens 

The  management  of  growing  chickens  depends  very 
much  upon  what  disposition  is  to  be  made  of  them  and 
the  time  of  their  disposal.  It  is  possible  to  force  the 
growth  of  the  chicks  doiring  the  first  two  months  of 
their  lives  and  then  market  them  as  "squab-broilers," 
weighing  from  one-half  pound  to  one  and  one-half 
pounds  each.  In  the  great  cities,  at  certain  seasons, 
these  tender  chicks,  if  plump,  are  in  good  demand  in 
club-houses,  high  class  hotels  and<  restaurants  and  bring 
excellent  prices. 

Spring  broilers  are  marketed  later  in  the  season. 
These  should  be  grown. until  they  weigh  dressed,  two 
pounds  each.  There  is  very  little  market  demand  for 
chickens  weighing  two  and)  one-half  pounds  each.  Af- 
ter the  birds  attain  a  weight  of  three  pounds  they  be- 
come salable  as  small  roasters.  There  is  a  yet  better 
demand  for  roasters  of  four  to  six  pounds  weight  and 
considerable  call  for  well  finished  fowl  weighing  from 
six  to  twelve  pounds.  Many  pullet  chicks  are  grown 
for  layers  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  hens  which  are 
usually  sold  after  two  seasons,  sometimes  after  one  sea- 
son, if  not  laying.  A  large  number  of  fowls  are  grown  to 
maturity  and!  used  or  soldi  for  breeding  stock.  Not  a 
few  birds  are  grown  for  exhibition  purposes. 

SQUAB-BROILER     CHICKS. 

Chicks  intended  for  marketing  at  eight  to  ten  weeks 
old,  weighing  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  to  tn-e 
pair  are  usually  hatched  in  December  and  January  and 
confined  in  brooders  until  fitted  for  sale.  White  Leg- 
horns, White  Wyandottes  and  Rhode  Island1  Reds  are  fa- 
vorite varieties  for  this  special  purpose^  because  their 
chicks  grow  rapidly  and!  promptly  cover  the  breast  and 


88        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

shanks  with,  toothsome  flesh.  Arrangements  are  made 
so  that  consecutive  hatches,  at  regular  intervals,  shall 
supply  a  sufficient  number  of  chicks  to  fill  the  brooders 
and  meet  the  orders  without  delay.  The  treatment  of 
the  chicks  in  the  brooding  pens  is  such  as  has  already 
been  described  in  the  chapter  on  Brooding,  except  that 
their  exercising  place  is  somewhat  more  restricted  and 
they  are  induced  to  eat  all  the  food  that  they  can  readily 
digest.  The  temperature  of  the  air  around  them  musi 
always  be  under  control  and  completely  comfortable. 

It  is  practicable  to  take  an  old  farm  house  or  any 
tightly  constructed  building,  place  in  it  a  modern  steam 
heating  system  and  use  the  rooms  for  growing  squab- 
broiler  chicks.  Several  layers:  of  building  paper  or  news- 
papers are  placed  upon  the  floors  and  over  these  is 
spread  a  few  inches  depth  of  sand.  Upon  the  sand  is 
strewn  a  layer  several  inches  deep  of  chaff,  short  cut  hay 
clover,  alfalfa  or  straw.  Radiators  or  coils  of  iron  pip- 
ing convey  the  steam  heat  to  the  rooms  and  keep  the 
brooding  quarters  at  the  desired  temperature.  If  the 
warmth  is  always  sufficient  no  hovers  or  enclosed  brood- 
ing boxes  are  needed.  If  there  is  any  danger  of  the 
temperature  falling  during  the  night  so  that  the  chicks, 
hovering  on  the  littered  floors  of  the  rooms,  will  be 
uncomfortable  or  chilly  the  steam  heater  should  be  of 
larger  size.  The  heating  power  ought  to  be  sufficient 
to  maintain  a  comfortable  temperature  surrounding  the 
chicks  throughout  the  coldest,  windiest,  stormiest  night 
of  the  winter.  In  case  the  temperature  of  the  rooms 
is  not  sufficiently  high  in  extremely  cold  weather,  sim- 
ple hovers  made  of  empty  soap  boxes,  carrying  pails  of 
hot  water,  may  be  used  to  supply  extra  warmth. 

HOME  MADE  HOVEE. 

A  supplementary  hover  is  easily  constructed  by  tak- 
ing a  good  empty  soap-box,  removing  the  top  and  any 
nails  that  stick  out  on  the  upper  side,  turning  the  box 
bottom  side  up,  and  cutting  a  round  hole  in  the  top  of 
sufficient  size  to  receive  and  hold  a  water  pail  of  or- 
dinary size,  letting  the  bottom  of  the  pail  down  into  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        89 

box  to  within  about  three  inches  of  the  floor.  Pails 
made  of  wood-fiber  hold  the  heat  better  than  metal  pails 
and  give  out  the  warmth  of  the  hot  water  gradually  to 
the  little  chicks  which  hover  beneath  and  around  the 
filled  pails.  A  board  cover  is  made  to  fit  closely  the  top 
of  the  pail.  A  little  chick-door,  cut  in  the  side  of  the 
box  allows  the  chicks  to  go  in  and  out  of  the  hover  at 
pleasure.  Several  half-inch  holes  cut  in  the  front  side 
of  the  box  near  the  top  will  help  to  give  needed  ventila- 
tion. If  it  is  desired  to  use  a  thermometer  in  the  hov- 
er, one  may  be  inserted  through  a  hole  made  in  the  side 
or  top  of  the  box,  letting  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer 
come  about  three  inches  above  the  hover  floor. 

If  necessary  a  larger  box  may  be  used  and  two  pails 
of  water  set  into  its  top.  The  water  used  to  fill  the  pails 
should  be  of  a  temperature  of  140  to  160  degrees  and 
one  filling  will  usually  maintain  the  desired  warmth  of 
the  hover  through  the  night.  If  necessary,  on  very  cold 
nights,  papers  or  blankets  may  be  used  to  cover  over 
the  pails  and  the  back  and  ends  of  the  hover  but  the 
front  should  be  left  uncovered  to  ensure  sufflcicent  ven- 
tilation. If  the  room  outside  the  hover  is  chilly  at  night 
the  chick  door  should  be  nearly  closed  so  as  to  prevent 
any  of  the  chicks  coming  out  and  failing  to  return  to 
the  warm  hover.  If,  however,  the  room  is  abundantly 
warm,  the  chicks  may  be  shut  out  of  the  hovers  and 
compelled  to  hover  in  the  chaff  where  the  air  is  less 
confined  than  in  the  box  hovers. 

DOUBLE-DEGKEB    BROODERS. 

If  more  room  for  chicks  is  needed,  than  is  furnished 
by  the  floor  pens,  it  is  practicable  to  construct  board 
platforms  three  feet  above  the  floor.  Each  platform 
may  be  made  three  by  seven  feet,  allowing  about  three 
square  feet  at  one  end  for  a  home-made  hover  and  leav- 
ing an  exercising  space  of  about  three  by  six  feet.  These 
platforms  may  'be  arranged  in  continuous  rows  with 
paths  between,  two  and  one-half  or  three  feet  wide,  to  en- 
able the  attendant  to  easily  manage  the  brbods.  The  ele- 
vated platforms  have  sides  eight  to  twelve  inches  high 


90        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


of  boards  and  the  tops  are  protected  by  wire  netting. 
The  youngest  chicks  are  brooded  on  these  platforms  un- 
til a<bout  three  weeks  old.  They  are  then  transferred  to 
the  floor  pens  underneath  the  platforms.  The  latter  are 
cleaned,  the  sand  and  chaff  renewed  and  newly  hatched 
chicks  placed!  in  the  hovers.  The  frequently  renewed 
sand  and  chaff  keep  the  pens  dry  and  clean'  under  foot. 
By  scattering  dry  granulated1  or  cracked  grains  and  seeds 
in  the  litter,  the  chicks  are  encouraged  to  scratch  for  a 
part  of  their  living,  thereby  ensuring  the  taking  of  suf- 
ficient exercise  for  healthy  circulation  of  blood  and 
good  growth  of  body. 

FEEDING    AND    FINISHING. 

Add  fresh  chaff  or  other  litter  daily  and  replace  the 
surface  layer  of  sandl  and  the  broken  litter  weekly. 
Pure  water  is  renewed  in  the  fountains  frequently 
enough  to  keep  before  the  chicks  an  ample  supply  in 
fresh  palatable  condition.  Plenty  of  grit  (granulated 
'bone  is  best)  and  granulated  charcoal  of  bone  or  wood 
should  >be  kept  in  a  hopper  always  conveniently  at  hand. 
A  good  growing  ration,  well  balanced,  as  described  in 
the  previous  chapter  (IV,  Brooding),  is  supplied  and 
the  chicks  induced  to  eat  all  they  can  well  digest. 

Green  food  may  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  sprout- 
ing oats,  lettuce  leaves,  cabbage,  chopped  onions  or 
onion  sprouts,  fresh  cut  apples  or,  lacking  actual  green 
food,  use  may  be  madte  of  cured  alfalfa  or  clover  leaves. 

The  chicks  if  properly  hatched  from  eggs  of  a  suit- 
able breed  and  vigorous  stock  should  thrive  and  grow 
rapidly  in  the  well  lighted,  airy  quarters,  enjoying  a 
comfortable  temperature  day  and  night,  generous  but 
careful  feeding,  reasonable  and  not  excessive  exercise, 
proper  ventilation  and  cleanliness  (preventing  foul  air 
and  filthiness  under  foot)  and  healthiness  because  of 
the  banishment  of  parasites  and  disease  germs. 

Before  killing,  the  plump  chicks  are  kept  without 
food!  or  water  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  pen  or  coop 
where  there  is  no  chaff  or  litter  on  the  floor;  They  are 
bled  through  the  mouth,  carefully  picked  to  avoid  any 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        91 

tearing  of  the  tender  skin  and  thoroughly  cooled.  They 
are  not  drawn  and  the  heads  are  not  removed.  Any 
blood  on  the  beak  is  sponged  off.  After  all  the  body- 
heat  has  escaped!  the  broilers  are  packed  in,  a  clean  box 
of  suitable  size,  alternating  the  layers  of  chicks  laid  on 
their  sides,  spoon-fashion  close  together,  with  layers  of 
bright  clean  straw,  if  the  weather  is  cool  enough  to 
ship  without  ice.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  cracked  ice 
is  used  between  the  layers  of  broilers.  Pack  closely  so 
that  there  will  be  no  shifting  and  consequent  bruising 
of  the  birds.  Nail  or  fasten  the  cover  on  tight.  Write 
plainly  on  the  package  the  address  of  the  customer  and 
of  the  shipper.  Also  write  a  letter  to  the  customer  ad- 
vising him  of  the  time  of  shipping  and  the  contents  of 
the  package. 

SPRING  BROILERS. 

Hatching  of  chicks  for  spring  broilers  usually  be- 
gins in  January  or  February.  White  Wyandottes  are  a 
favorite  variety  for  this  purpose  on  account  of  their 
maturing  early  and  making  plump  breasted  broilers. 
The  plan  is  to  grow  the  chicks  to  about  two  pounds  dress- 
ed weight.  The  directions  given  for  the  management 
of  brooder  chicks  in  Chapter  IV  will  suit  the  needs  of 
chicks  intended  to  be  sold  as  spring  broilers.  These 
chicks  may  have  somewhat  more  exercising  room  than 
the  squab-broiler  chicks  but  should  be  confined  within 
the  brooder  runs.  Their  feeding  may  be  less  forcing 
than  that  of  squab-broilers  because  a  longer  time  is 
taken  for  their  growth  and  all  risk  of  inducing  leg 
weakness  or  indigestion  should  be  avoided.  They  should 
however,  'be  kept  growing  steadily  and1  without  halting 
come  to  a  plump  condition  and  be  ready  for  marketing 
by  the  time  they  are  twelve  to  fifteen  weeks  old.  They 
are  finished1  off,  fasted,  killed,  prepared  for  market  and 
shipped  as  described  for  squab-broiler  chicks. 

REARING    CHICKS     AFTER    BROODING. 

In  growing  cockerels  to  be  marketed  vin  autumn  or 
early  winter  as  roasters,  in  raising  cockerels  and  pul- 


92        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


lets  for  breeding  or  exhibition  stock  and  in  developing 
pullets  for  laying  flocks,  the  management  of  the  chick- 
ens may  be  alike  for  several  months  after  they  pass  th« 
brooding  period.  As  soon  as  the  sexes  can  be  determin- 
ed, the  cockerel  chicks  should  be  separated  from  the 
pullet  chicks  and  the  two  sexes  thereafter  colonized  in 
separate  flocks. 

Separating  the  Sexes. — It  is  easy  to  determine  the 
sex  of  chicks  of  the  Leghorn  and  other  Mediterranean 
breeds,  at  eight  weeks  old.  The  combs  of  the  male  chicks 
usually  show  conspicuously  because  of  larger  size  and 
brighter  red  color  than  the  combs  of  the  female  chicks. 
The  little  cockerels  are  also  more  obstreperous  and  eager 
for  mock  fights  than  their  sister  chicks.  The  latter, 
however,  oftentimes  develop  the  wing  and  tail  feathers 
faster  than  the  little  cockerels.  Chicks  of  the  Ameri- 
can class  of  breeds,  such  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wy- 
andottes  and!  Rhode  Island  Reds,  are  slower  than  the 
Leghorns  in  showing  sex  characteristics.  The  cockerel 
chicks  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks  old,  should  average  a  lit- 
tle larger  and  somewhat  coarser  than  the  pullet  chicks. 
The  Brahmas  and  other  Asiatics  may  not  show  distinct 
differences  between  the  sexes  of  the  chicks  until  they 
are  fifteen  weeks  old  and  even  at  that  age,  it  is  frequent- 
ly difficult  to  separate  them  according  to  sexes.  By  this 
time  however,  the  shanks  and  toes  of  the  cockerel  chicks 
should  appear  larger  in  size  than  those  of  the  pullet 
chicks.  The  voice  of  the  chick  is  usually  a  good  indica- 
tion of  its  sex.  Taking  a  chick  in  the  hand  and  remov- 
ing a  short  distance  from  the  brood,  will  commonly 
cause  emphatic  peeping  by  the  prisoner.  If  a  male 
chick  the  voice  will  usually  be  coarser  and  deeper  in 
tone  than  that  of  a  female  chick,  which  latter  is  likely 
to  be  fine  in  tone  and  high  of  pitch.  The  interested 
poultryman,  attending  daily  to  the  wants  of  his  broods 
gradually  learns  to  note  these  andi  many  minor  differ- 
ences between  the  cockerel  and  pullet  chicks.  After  one 
or  two  seasons'  experience,  he  is  able,  without  difficulty 
to  distinguish  the  sexes  during  the  brooding  period. 

Weaning  the  Chicks. — When  chicks  are  brooded  by 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        93 

tlie  mother  hen  she  may,  in;  most  cases,  be  permitted  to 
leave  her  chicks  when  it  suits  her  best.  In  artificial 
rearing  of  the  chdcks,  the  time  for  changing  from  the 
brooder  having  a  heated  hover,  to  the  unseated  colony 
house,  depends  very  much  on  t.h<e  season  and  the  prevail- 
ing weather,  somewhat  also  on  the  location  and  the 
conditions  of  shelter  and  furthermore  on  the  extent  to 
which  the  chicks  are  feathered  out  and  the  kind  of  care 
they  will  receive.  If  the  change  is  made  in  early  spring, 
the  chicks  should,  in  their  new  quarters,  be  amply  pro- 
tected from  storms,  chilly  winds  and  dampness.  If  the 
change  occurs  in  sultry  weather,  the  chicks  should  not 
be  confined  in  close,  hot  quarters,  during  either  day  or 
night.  Chicks  will  bear  considerable  moisture  if  there 
is  no  chilliness  accompanying  it.  They  will  stand  con- 
siderable cold  if  the  air  is  not  humid.  The  combination 
of  wetness  and  chilliness,  however,  is  unbearable.  The 
only  safe  rule  is  to  keep  the  chicks  comfortable. 

Culling  the  Cockerels. — The  poultryman  may  see  fit 
to  cull  out  the  cockerel  chicks  that  he  does  not  care  to 
raise  and  sell  .them  as  broilers.  This  plan  saves  con- 
siderable feed  and  care  and  the  birds  will  usually  sell 
for  a  sum  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  growing  of  the  pullet 
chicks  to  laying  age.  Cockerel  chicks  that  are  intended 
to  be  grown  to  roaster  age,  may  be  caponized  when  two 
to  three  months  old  according  to  directions  to  be  given 
later  in  this  chapter.  Selection  of  birds  which  promise 
to  be  of  value,  as  special  breeders  or  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses may  be  made  at  any  time.  Such  birds  are  given 
especial  attention  and  care  under  conditions  as  favora- 
ble as  possible  to  the  development  of  their  fine  qualities. 
Sometimes  it  works  well  to  select  one  or  two  very  prom- 
ising cockerels  and  place  them,  in  pullet  flocks.  They 
thus  escape  any  quarrels  likely  to  occur  among  their 
fellows  and  by  association  with  the  pullets  they  tend  to 
develop  more  rapidly  and  successfully,  their  fine  quali- 
ties for  exhibition  purposes. 

COLONIZING  THE   CHICKENS. 

The  ideal  method  of  growing  chicks  after  they  have 


94   PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY  CULTURE 


been  removed  from  the  brooders  anid  separated  into 
flocks  according  to  sex,  is  to  colonize  them  on  turf  or 
tillage  land1  where  theyi  can  have  free  range.  This  plan 
saves  the  expense  and!  inconvenience  of  fencing.  The 
chickens  obtain  a  good  part  of  their  living  by  foraging. 
The  fresh  air,  sunshine,  green  grass,  insect-food'  and  out- 
door exercise  aire  all  favorable  to  uninterrupted  thrifty 
growth.  Each  flock  should  consist  of  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred chicks  of  one  breed,  of  about  the  same  age  and  of 
like  degree  of  growth  and  vigor.  If  they  must  be  con- 
fined by  fences  the  yards  should  foe  made  as  large  as 
practicable  so  that  the  birds  will  not  feel  the  restraint. 
The  enclosure  should  include  both  grass  land  and  plow- 
ed land.  If  the  poultrymian>  can  allow  only  small  yards 
for  his  growing  chickens,  the  ground  should  be  fresh- 
ened frequently  by  cultivation  and  cropping.  It  is  well 
to  divide  the  yard  space  for  each  flock  ,by  a  middle 
fence,  thus  providing  double  yards.  While  the  chicks 
are  occupying  one  yard,  grain  may  be  growing  in  the 
other  which  in  its  turn  is  occupied  by  the  flock. 

If  dogs,  cats,  hawks  or  other  enemies  are  likely  to 
invade  the  enclosures  it  may  become  necessary  to  make 
the  yardis  narrow  and  cover  them  with  poultry  netting. 
Shadie  should  be  provided  by  means  of  trees  to  protect 
the  fowls  in  summer  from  the  fierce  rays  of  the  mid-day 
sun.  If  the  farm  orchard  is  available  it  provides  very 
desirable  conditions  for  the  growing  chicks.  The  occa- 
sional cultivation  of  the  soil  under  the  trees  is  favorable 
to  their  growth  and  gives  the  chicks  fresh  soil  to  scratch 
in.  The  chicks  destroy  many  insect  enemies  of  the  fruit 
trees  and  their  droppings  furnish  the  best  of  fertilizer 
for  promoting  the  growth  of  the  apple,  pear,  plum,  peach 
or  other  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  The  chickens  appreciate 
and!  enjoy  the  shade  of  the  orchard!  and  frequently  pre- 
fer to  roost  in  the  trees  at  night  rather  than1  stay  in 
houses  that  lack  the  pure  air,  cleanliness  and  freedom 
from  insect  pests  of  the  natural  perches.  If  trees  are 
lacking  for  the  colonies  on  free  range,  it  may  be  prac- 
ticable to  plant  continuous  rows  or  dlrills  of  Indian  corn 
in  strips  two  or  three  rods  wide  between  the  ranges. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        95 

The  rapidly  growing  corn  supplies  desirable  shade  and 
also  helps  to  keep  the  independent  flocks  secluded  from 
one  another.  Further  a  considerable  crop  of  grain  for 
winter  feeding  may  thus  be  obtained.  If  neither  trees 
nor  growing  crops  can  be  conveniently  provided,  screens 
may  be  made  of  the  boughs  of  trees  in  full  leaf  or  of 
burlap  sacking  or  cotton  cloth,  tacked  upon  frames,  sup- 
ported by  posts  about  two  feet  high  above  the  ground. 
These  retreats  will  furnish  not  only  shade  'but  also  pro- 
tection from  hawks  if  these  enemies  are  prevalent 

CHICKEN    COLONY   HOUSES. 

Some  simple,  suitable  shelter  is  desirable  whether 
the  chicks  are  kept  on  free  farm  range  or  within  fenced 
parks  or  yards.  In  some  cases  the  chicks,  having  been 
protected  by  means  of  comfortably  heated  brooders  In 
the  shelter  of  sheds  or  small  houses,  the  first  step  after 
brooding  age  is  to  remove  the  hovers  and  still  allow 
the  chicks  the  use  of  the  brooders.  The  next  step  is  to 
take  the  brooder  away,  place  perches  in  the  shed  or 
house  and  permit  the  chicks  to  occupy  these  quarters. 
If  the  house  is  portable  it  may  be  moved  to  the  pasture 
or  other  part  of  the  farm  where  the  chicks  are  to  have 
their  range.  Good  colony  coops  may  be  made  out  of 
piano  boxes.  Jn  localities  where  rye  straw  is  readily 
grown  or  easily  obtainable,  small  colony  houses  may 
be  made  of  poles,  poultry  netting  and  thatch.  A  frame 
of  poles  or  joists  is  made,  forming  the  skeleton  of  the 
house.  Poles  or  thin  strips  of  board  are  laid  on  the  raft- 
ers and  sides  to  support  the  thatch.  Small  sheaves  of 
straight  straw  are  laid  on  the  roof  and  sides,  lapped 
like  shingles  and1  thick  enough  to  shed!  rain  water.  The 
thatch  is  fastened1. on  to  the  frame  work  by  strands  of 
tarred  rope.  The  front  of  the  structure  may  be  left 
open  or  can  be  protected  when  necessary  by  a  frame 
covered  with  wire  netting  or  cotton  cloth  or  both. 

Shelter,  shadte,  comfort,  coolness,  ventilation  and  at- 
tractive appearance  may  thus  'be  easily  and  economically 
provided  by  the  right  combination  of  a  fesv  poles,  some 
sheaves  of  straw,  a  pound  of  nails,  a  few  strands  of  rope 


96        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


and  a  little  labor.  If  preferred  chicken  colony  houses 
may  be  constructed  of  lumber,  each  provided  with  a 
door,  a  window  and  a  ventilator.  A  floor  is  made  of 
matched  boards.  The  roof  is  covered  with  shingles  or 
roofing  paper.  Perches  placed  about  eighteen  inches 
above  the  floor  and  fifteen  inches  apart  leave  little  room 
except  for  the  feed  and  grit  hoppers  and  waiter  fountain. 
Such  a  house  eight  feet  square  will  shelter  one  hundred 
growing  chicks  nicely  during  the  night-time  and  when 
the  weather  is  stormy  or  ^uncomfortable  out  of  doors. 
Such  houses  being  portable  may  be  used  on  the  range  in 
summer  and  brought/  in  to  be  grouped  in  a  sheltered  lo- 
cation for  use  in  winter.  The  house  may  have  frames  of 
wire  netting  made  to  fit  its  door-way,  window-frame  and 
ventilator  space  so  that  it  may  be  safely  closed  at  night 
«,nd  yet  allow  full  andi  free  circulation  of  air  for  the 
chickens  on  the  perches.  If  rain  storms  are  liable  to 
drive  ini  and  drench  the  fowls,  when  on  the  roosts,  the 
regular  board  door  may  toe  closed  and;  the  window  sash 
or  a  board  shutter  or  a  frame  of  burlap  or  a  curtain  of 
cotton  cloth  be  used  to  fill  the  window  space.  The  ven- 
tilator may  be  placed  in!  the  front  near  the  top  of  the 
house  and  should  have  a  board  cover,  which  when  well 
opened  forme  an  awning  over  the  ventilator  opening, 
thus  preventing  rain®  from  driving  in  upon  the  chick- 
ens. More  complete  details  of  the  plan  of  this  kind  of 
chicken  house  will  be  given  inj  the  chapter  on  poultry 
buildings.  Such  a  house  is  easily  kept  clean.  Fresh 
loam  may  be  thrown  upon  the  droppings  over  the  board 
floor  every  morning  and  all  cleaned  out  weekly.  Wihen 
the  chicks  are  first  placed  in  the  colony  houses  care 
should  be  taken  to  induce  them  to  use  the  perches  at 
night  and  not  hover  in  the  corners  on  the  floor. 

Lift  the  ends  of  the  perches  from  their  supports  oc- 
casionally and  search  for  insect  parasites.  If  mites 
should  be  found,  remove  all  the  furnishings,  clean  the 
floor  and)  spray  all  of  the  interior  surfaces  with  a  two 
per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  (two  parts  carbolic 
acid  to  ninety-eight  parts  of  water).  Also  saturate  the 
furnishings  thoroughly  with  the  solution  before  return- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        97 


ing  them  to  the  house.  Repeat  this  operation  frequent- 
ly enough  to  subdue  and  banish  the  pests.  If  necessary 
use  a  five  per  cent,  solution  to  annihilate  the  parasites. 
See  that  the  chicken®  have  a  sheltered  wallowing  place 
in  mellow  soil,  where  the  sunshine  makes  it  inviting. 
One  trip  daily  with  a  horse  and  wagon  will  enable  the 
poultryman  to  drive  from  colony  to  colony,  fill  the  water 
fountains,  replenish  the  feed1  hoppers  and  strew  dry 
soil  on  the  house  floors.  The  plan  of  supplying  granu- 
lated bone,  dry  grains  and  beef  scraps  or  evaporated 


EGG  TESTER 

Bicycle  Lamp  and  Galvanized  Iron  Cylinder— See  page  53 
buttermilk  freely  in  the  hoppers  allows  the  chickens  to 
balance  their  own  rations.  If  extra  large  hoppers  are 
used,  filling  them  weekly  may  suffice.  If  a  stream  of 
waiter  or  a  system  of  pipes  provides  fresh,  running  drink- 
ing water,  so  much  the  better.  Occasionally  visit  the 
houses  after  sunset  and  listen  to  the  breathing  of  the 
birds.  If  there  is  any  wfceezing  or  sign  of  difficult 
breathing  remove  the  bird  that  shows  such  indication 
of  throat  or  lung  trouble.  Count  up  tire  chickens  of 
each  colony  every  few  days  and  if  any  are  missing,  find 

4 


98        PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

out,  if  possible  where  they  are  or  what  has  caused  their 
disappearance. 

PEEPARING    THE    PULLETS. 

For  Exhibition. — Any  particularly,  promising  pullets 
that  are  wanted  for  exhibiting  in  the  autumn  poultry 
shows,  may  be  selected  from  the  flocks  and1  kept  by  them- 
selves. They  should  not  be  pushed  in  growth  so  as  to 
actually  begin  laying  before  exhibition  because  egg  pro- 
duction caiuses  detraction  of  exhibition  qualities.  The 
pullet  has  a  fine,  glossy  plumage  and  is  in  the  pink  of 
condition'  for  exhibiting  just  as  she  comes  to  the  period 
of  egg-production.  If  she  begins  laying,  however,  the 
glossiness)  and  smoothness  of  her  feathers  diminish  and 
she  loses  somewhat  of  the  comliness  and  symmetry 
which  count  for  so  much  in  the  winning  of  prizes  at 
poultry  shows.  If  the  pullet  searches  for  a  nesting  place 
or  tries  to  begin  egg-laying,  change  her  quarters  to 
some  place  that  is  cooler  and  darker  than  her  previous 
abode.  Give  her  only  enough  food  to  keep  up  body  and 
plumage  condition.  Omit  from  her  rations  meat,  fresh 
cut  bone,  blood-meal  and  other  feed  stuffs  that  tend  to 
hasten  egg-production.  Use  no  condiments. 

For  Laying. — Pullets  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds, 
like  the  Leghorns,  will  often  be  prepared  to  produce 
eggs  at  five  to  six  months  of  age.  The  Rhode  Island 
Redfe,  amd  Wyandottes  will  sometimes  lay  at  six  months 
while  the  Plymouth  Rocks  wait  usually  until  they  are 
eight  months  old  before  laying.  The  Asiatics,  includ- 
ing the  Braihonas',  Cochins1  and  Langshans  take  ten  to 
twelve  months  to  mature  and)  prepare  for  breeding. 
Chicks  of  the  early  maturing  breeds,  hatched  in  March 
or  April  may  'be  managed!  so  that  they  will  begin  lay- 
ing in  October  by  keeping  them  continually  comfortable 
under  the  conditions  of  the  colony  system  on  free  range 
and,  as  they  approach  maturity,  feeding  them  balanced 
laying  rations  including  fresh-cut  bone,  beef  scraps, 
granulated  milk  or  other  feed  stuff  containing  consid- 
erable digestible  protein  for  the  maturing  of  normal, 
healthy  perfect  'bones,  muscles,  nerves',  heart  and)  blood- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE        99 

vessels,  lungs,  digestive  system,  breeding  organs  and  the 
albumen  or  "white"  and)  the  yolk  of  the  eggs.  As  the 
pullets  grow  in  size,  if  they  begin*  to  become  crowded 
in  the  colony  houses  at  night,  divide  the  flocks  so  as  to 
give  the  birds  plenty  of  room.  Keep  them  comfortable 
in  every  way  but  do  not  tempt  them  to  form  habits  of 
idleness.  Encourage  their  foraging,  if  necessary,  by 
occasionally  scattering  grains  widely  over  their  grassy 
ranges.  See  that  they  are  not  compelled  to  endure  pelt- 
ing storms,  harsh  winds,  chilliness,  dampness,  foulness, 
impure  air,  unwholesome  food,  or  filthy  or  stagnant 
drinking  water.  Let  the  pullets  remain  on  free 
range  as  long  as  practicable  before  laying,  then  remove 
to  the  quarters  which  will  be  their  home  through  the 
fall  and  winter.  If  by  forcing  the  growth  and  feeding 
stimulating  rations  the  pullets  are  induced  to  begin 
laying  early  in  September,  their  bodies-  are  liable  to  be 
stunted,  their  eggs  small  and  laying  to  be  interrupted 
by  a  fall  molting  of  the  feathers.  In  such  cases  the 
fowls  do  not  ordinarily  renew  egg-production  until  the 
following  spring  season.  Steady  growth,  maturing  and 
perfecting  all  parts  of  the  pullet  and  of  her  breeding 
organs,  will  prepare  her  for  egg-production  which,  be- 
ginning in  October,  should  continue  under  favorable  con- 
ditions through  the  autumn1,  winter  and  following  spring. 
If  pullets  are  to  be  selected  for  future  breeders,  their 
egg-laying  records  should  be  carefully  kept,  as  already 
suggested,  during  their  first  laying  season. 

SOFT   BOASTERS. 

Sometimes  it  is  wise  to  depart  from  the  usual  cus- 
tom and  do  things  differently  fromi  the  ordinary  way. 
Chickens  hatched  in  spring,  reared  through  the  summer 
and  marketed  in  the  autumn,  commonly  bring  only  or- 
dinary prices,  the  supplies  of  dressed  poultry  for  the 
holiday  trade  being  usually  very  abundant.  In  some  lo- 
calities it  is  practicable  to  procure  a  profit  by  reversing 
the  usual  order  of  poultry  practice.  Chicks  may  be 
hatched  in  late  summer  and  early  autumn",  brooded  dur- 
ing the  fall,  grown  through'  the  winter  and1  sold  as  soft 


100      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


roasters  (.both  cockerels  and!  pullets)  in  the  spring. 
Light  Brahmas  and  White  Plymouth  Rocks  are  favorite 
fowls  for  use  in  carrying  out  this  plan.  It  is  more 
difficult  to  obtain  good  eggs  for  incubating  in  the  sum- 
mer and  hatching  is  more  difficult  than  in  the  natural 
nesting  season  of  spring  but  these  difficulties  can  be 
managed,  Hatching  machines  are  used  to  brinig  out 
the  chicks  in  large  numbers  and  these  are  cared  for  in 
brooder  houses  warmed  by  pipe-systems  of  hot  water  or 
steam.  These  houses  should  have  been  cleaned  out  thor- 
oughly and  disinfected  several  months  before  autumn 
use.  They  should,  in  fact,  have  been  left  empty  and 
open  to  the  air  and  sunshine,  unusued,  through  the  sum- 
mer months.  Any  good  system  of  brooding  that  insures 
complete  control  of  the  temperature  and  other  conditions 
surrounding  the  chicks  will  answer.  After  the  brooding 
period  is  over,  the  chickens  are  separated  into  flocks 
according  to  sex  and  provided  with  colony  houses  hold- 
ing each  a  flock  of  about  thirty  birds  and  providing 
about  two  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  fowl.  The  cock- 
erels should  be  caponized'  or  castrated. 

CAPONIZING. 

Caponizing  is  the  removal  of  the  generative  organs 
of  the  mate  chicken,  thereby  destroying  his  power  to 
breed. 

The  Capon. — The  cockerel  so  emasculated  is  termed 
a  capon..  He  becomes  very  docile  and  slow  of  movement, 
loses  all  inclination  for  fighting  or  quarreling  with  his 
fellows  and  is  contented  to  keep  his  own  company.  The 
spurs  keep  growing  but  the  comb  and  wattles  diminish 
rather  than  increase  in  size.  They  also  lose  their  bright 
red!  color.  The  flesh  of  the  capon  remains  tender.  If 
given  sufficient  time  he  grows  to  much  larger  size  than 
be  would  if  not  caponized.  He  fattens  readily  and  pro- 
duces a  plump,  juicy,  sweet  flavored,  fine  grained  table 
fowl.  He  commands  a  higher  price  in  the  market  than 
if  not  caiponized.  Well  matured  capons  often  develop  a 
"beautiful  glossiness  of  plumage,  which  added!  to  their 
majestic  mien!  gives  them  a  very  attractive  appearance. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      101 

Capons  sometimes  become  so  motherly  in  their  manners 
that  they  are  used;  for  brooding  chickens.  They  succeed 
admirably  in  fulfilling  the  mission  of  the  broody  hen. 
Capons  are  readily  restrained  within  limited  quarters 
and  seem  to  devote  their  energies  almost  entirely  to  eat- 
ing, digesting  and  growing.  The  American  and  Asiatic 
breeds  of  poultry  furnish  chickens  that  are  well  suited 
for  making  capons.  The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode  Island 
Reds  and  Light  Brahmas  make  especially  nice  capons. 
The  qualities  of  early  maturing  and  easily  fattening  are 
particularly  favorable  to  the  production  of  plump,  prof- 
itable capons.  An  especially  desirable  characteristic  is 
that  the  ribs  of  the  bird  shall  have  ample  spaces  between 
them. 

The  Canonizing  Instruments. — A  set  of  modern  in- 
struments for  performing  the  operation  of  caponizing 
includes  the  following: 

1.  An   operating   stand   or   easel    for   holding  the 
chicken  while  being  caponized.    The  board  on  which  the 
bird  is  placed  should  be  about  two  feet  by  three  feet 
and  have  half -inch  holes  through  which  are  passed  the 
cords  holding  the  wings  and  legs  of  the  chicken.    The 
board  may  have  its  corners  rounded  or  be  made  in  the 
form  of  an  elipse  is  so  desired.     Some  operators  use  the 
top  of  a  flour  barrel  for  a  caponizing  table. 

2.  Two  strong  cords,  one  to  fasten  about  the  wings 
near  the  body,  and  the  other  to  fasten  around  the  legs 
just    above   the    hocks.    The    ends   of   the   cordfe   pass 
through  holes  in  the  operating  board  and  are  held  taught 
by  weights. 

3.  A  sharp  thin  steel  bladte  for  cutting  through  th« 
side  of  the  chicken.    The  handle  of  this  blade  may  be 
of  two  pieces  forming  a  pair  of  forceps. 

4.  A  sprin-g  spreader  for  holding  open  the  sides  of 
the  incision  made  between  the  ribs. 

5.  A  probe  for  use,  if  needed,  in  pushing  away  the 
intestines  so  that  a  clear  view  and  room  for  operating 
are  secured. 

6.  A  twisting  spoon  or  scoop  and  lu*f>k.     These  two 
instruments  may  be  separate  or  the  hook  may  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  spoon. 


102      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

Some  eaponlzimg  sets  include  a  oanula  andi  horse 
hair  or  fine  wire  in  place  of  thei  twisting  spoon.  The 
twisting  spoon-  or  scoop  which  gather®  the  testacle,  has 
a  slit  in  the  middle  into  which  the  cord)  attaching  the 
testacle  to  the  foody  of  the  chick,  should  slip  before  the 
spoon  is  turned.  In  one  form  of  spoon  or  scoop,  a 
clipping  knife  operates  in  the  hollow  of  the  spoon  across 
this  slit,  severing  the  cord  and  doing  away  with  the 
necessity  of  twisting  and  tearing  in  the  removal  of  the 
organ.  A  bottle  containing  a  few  ounces  of  carbolic 
acid  and  a  package  of  absorbent  cotton  complete  the 
outfit. 

The  Operation  of  Canonizing. — Whatever  the  season 
of  the  year,  the  cockerel  chickens  to  be  operated  upon 
should  be  from  two  to  three  month®  of  age  and  weigh 
from  one  and  one-half  to  two  pound's.  The  organs  of 
reproduction  will  each  be  about  one-half  inch  in  length 
ana  one-fourth  inch  in  width,  shaped  somewhat  like  a 
kidney-bean.  For  thirty-six  hours  before  operating,  the 
chickens  .should  be  kept  in  a  cllean  coop  having  a  slatted 
or  board  floor  and  should  have  absolutely  no  food  or 
water.  The  purpose  of  this  day  and  a  half  of  abstinence 
from  eating  and  drinking,  is  to  reduce  the  size  of  the 
intestines  and  thus  give  room  for  using  the  instruments 
and)  seeing  clearly  the  parts  involved)  in  the  operation. 
Operate  only  in  direct  sunshine  or  in  very  powerful  arti- 
ficial light.  In  caponizing  by  electric  or  acetylene  light, 
a  visor  with  a  reflector  is  sometimes  worn  by  the  opera- 
tor, to  throw  the  light  directly  upon  the  organs  to  be 
removed.  The  chicken,  is  fastened  to  the  operating  board 
by  folding  a  cord)  twice  around  the  base  of  the  wings 
and  another  cord  twice  around  the  legs  just  above  the 
hocks  and  passing  the  cords  through  holes  in  the  board 
so  placed  that  the  chicken  will  be  held)  with  his  right  side 
up.  Weights  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  cords  beneath 
thle  operating  board  hold  the  cords  taught  and  prevent 
the  bird  from  moving  to  any  troublesome  degree.  The 
board  with  the  bird  upon  it  is  canted  or  placed  at  the 
right  height  for  easy  operating  and  in  position  so  that 
the  sun  will  shine  down  directly  and  squarely  upon  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      103 

operation.  The  feathers  forward)  of  the  bird's  right  hip 
are  damipened  with  a  little  waiter  aoid  parted  at  the 
space  between  the  first  and  second  ribs  nest  to  the  hip. 
A  few  of  the  feathers  here  may  be  plucked  if  necessary 
to  expose  the  skin  at  this  place.  The  skin  is  drawn 
back  over  the  hip  by  the  fingers  of  one  hand  while  those 
of  the  other  hand  find  the  space  between  the  first  and 
second*  ribs  about  one  inch  below  the  back]  bone.  The 
steel  blade  is  used  to  make  an  incision  parallel  with  and 
between  these  two  ribs.  Do  not  thrust  the  point  of  the 
blade  in  so  deep  as  to  puncture  the  bowels  or  diaphragm. 
Avoid  cutting  into  the  lungs  which  are  just  forward  of 
the  diaphragm,  close  up  against  the  back  bone.  The 
spreader  is  inserted  to  hold  apaot  the  sides  of  the  open- 
ing between  the  ribs.  If  necessary  the  opening  is  en- 
larged by  using  the  steel  blade,  to  cut  upward1  or  down- 
ward along  the  ribs  but  do  not  cut  close  up  to  the  spinal 
column. 

The  little  hook  or  the  hook  end  of  the  twisting 
spoon  is  used  to  catch  into  the  thin,  transparent  film  of 
membrane  which  surrounds  the  abdominal  cavity.  This 
lining  is  torn  open  so  that  the  operator  can  see  into 
the  cavity.  The  two  testacles  lie  near  the  back  .bone, 
attached  by  fine  cords  very  close  to  a  large  artery.  With 
the  sun  shining  directly  into  the  cavity  one  testacle 
should  be  plainly  visible,  partially  hiding  the  one  below 
it.  The  twisting  spoon  is  inserted',  pushed  down  and 
passed  under  the  lower  lying  testacle.  Having  gathered 
it  in/to  tbe  hollow  of  the  spoon,  its  cord  should  slip  into 
the  slit  in  the  middle  of  the  spoon.  By  turning  and 
drawing  the  spoon  the  cord  attachment  is  twisted  apart 
and  the  testacle  is  then  removed'  from  the  cavity.  The 
spoon  is  again  inserted  and  the  remaining  testacle  re- 
moved in  like  manner.  If  a  spoon  with  a>  clipping  knife 
is  used  the  cord  attachment  is  cut  and;  the  testacle  re- 
moved without  twisting  the  spoon.  If  the  canula  and 
horse  hair  or  fine  wire  is  used  the  testacle  is  caught  at 
the  end  of  the  canula  by  the  loop  of  hair  or  wire  and 
then  by  twisting  the  firmly  held  carniia,  the  organ  is 
torn  from  its  attachment  and  removed.  If  the  testacle 


104      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


shouldi  be  too  large  to  'be  removed  at  one  operation  the 
spoon  should)  be  used  to  gather  any  fragment  that  re- 
mains. If  any  part  remains  it  may  grow  again  and  the 
bird  retain  breeddng  power.  If  the  castration  is  not 
complete  the  creature  is  termed1  a  "slip." 

Removing  the  spreader,  the  opening  in  the  side  of 
the  chicken  closes  andi  the  skin  which  in  the  first  of  the 
operation  had!  been  drawn  back  over  the  hip,  slips  for- 
ward so  that  the  incision  between  the  ribs  is  covered 
by  whole  skin.  The  wound  in  the  skin  itself  lies  for- 
ward of  the  incision  between  the  ribs.  The  bird  is  re- 
leased and  may  be  fed  and  watered  immediately.  He 
has  not  noticed)  much  about  the  operation  except  when 
the  blade  cut  the  surface  skin.  When  put  down  he 
begins  to  eat  and  appears  as  hearty  as  ever.  Sometimes 
the  skin  over  the  incision  puffs  up,  after  a  day  or  two. 
A  needle  run;  under  the  sound  skin  to  the  puffed  place 
will  let  out  the  gas  and  there  will  be  no  further  trouble. 

If  in  operating,  any  small  veins  or  arteries  are  sev- 
ered there  will  be  some  bleeding.  The  blood)  is  readily 
removed  by  the  spoon  or  by  absorbent  cotton,  if  it  inter- 
feres with  operating.  If  the  large  artery  between  the 
organs  and  the  'back  bone  is  ruptured  the  chicken  will 
flutter  and  quickly  bleed  to  death.  In  this  case  the  bird 
should  be  promptly  plucked  and  dressed  for  table  use. 
Skill  is  quickliy  gained  by  practice  so  that  chickens  may 
be  caponized  very  rapidly  without  making  slips  or  caus- 
ing death.  The  instruments  should,  after  using,  be  im- 
mediately cleansed  and  sterilized  with  a  one  per  cent, 
solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Spaying  is  the  operation  by  which  the  ovary  of  the 
pullet  chicken  is  removed)  but  this  is  rarely  practiced 
and  is  not  necessary  in  producing  pullets  for  market. 

FEEDING  THE   CAPONS    AND    PULLETS. 

Dry  feed  in  hoppers  is  the  method  followed,  tending 
to  healthy  digestion,  uninterrupted  growth,  plumpness 
of  flesh  and  sufficient  fatness  by  marketing  time,  all 
with  reasonable  economy  of  feed-stuffs  and  saving  of 
labor  in  caring  for  the  chickens.  Grit  andi  fresh  pure 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      105 

drinking  water  are,  of  course,  kept  at  hand.  The  grow- 
ing chickens  are  free  to  exercise  a  reasonable  amount 
but  capons  are  quiet  creatures  and  pullets  likewise. 
They  balance  their  own  rations  art;  the  hoppers  in  which 
they  find  Indian  corn  or  other  grains-  and  beef  scraps 
or  other  protein  food1.  Cabbages  hanging  by  their  stems 
furnish  green  food  and  some  exercise  in  jumping  for  it 
In  winter  mangolds  or  stock  beets  are  good  to  supply 
green  food  or  lacking  these,  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  espec- 
ially the  leafy  parts,  provide  an  excellent  substitute  for 
green  food.  The  alfalfa  or  clover  may  be  fed  cut  fine 
or  as  meal,  placed)  in  feeders  or  hoppers  protected  by 
inch-mesh  wire  netting  so  that  the  birds  can  not  scatter 
it  out.  Just  before  the  pullets  would  begin  to  lay  eggs 
they  should  be  slaughtered  an<d  dressed  for  market.  Both 
the  capons  and  the  pullets  are  sold  as  "soft  roasters," 
from  March)  to  June,  when  such  fowl  are  scarce  in  the 
markets.  These  choice  table  chickens  command  excel- 
lent prices.  Rightly  managed  they  should  prove  very 
profitable. 


DEVELOPMENT  QF  THE  EMBRYO— See  pagfe  54 


106      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


Making:  the  incision 


Using  the  scoop-twister 


iSSSSS—:- 

Catching  the  lower  or  left  testicle  in  the  scoop 

CAPONIZ1NG 
Courtesy  of  W.  H.  Wigmore 


CHAPTER  VI 
Foods  and  Feeding 

The  hopes  of  the  poultryman  and  the  pleasures  and 
profits  of  poultry-keeping  depend,  in  very  large  degree, 
on  the  abounding  life  of  the  birds  of  the  flocks. 

Hens  like  human  beings  may  of  dust  be  made  and 
to  dust  eventually  return  but,  betweenwhiles,  both  kinds 
of  bipeds  are  very  much  alive.  Beginning  with  the 
development  of  the  embryo  chick  within  the  egg,  there 
is  continuous  change,  ceaseless  movement,  growing, 
wearing,  wasting,  repairing,  heating,  producing  until  the 
time  of  the  creature's  death. 

Consider  one  item — that  of  bo3y  warmth.  Prom 
the  time  the  egg  begins  to  be  incubated  until  the  chick 
en's  career  is  ended,  there  must  be  maintained  through- 
out the  creature's  body  a  temperature  of  about  105°  F. 
and  this  whether  the  temperature  surrounding  the  fowl 
is  at  summer  heat,  or  far  below  freezing.  Any  serious 
variation  from  this  degree  of  natural  animal  hea/t  in  the 
body  of  the  bird  is  a  sign  of  the  passing  of  life  and  the 
coming  of  death. 

THE    LIFE    BLOOD. 

In  order  that  the  body  may  be  maintained  and 
growth  or  production  take  place,  the  heart  and  circulat- 
ing vessels  are  ever  at  work,  pumping  the  blood  through 
the  body,  carrying  the  fresh  materials  to  the  parts  for 
increase  or  repair  and  removing  the  wastes  of  wearing 
and  renewal. 

The  red  blood  contains  all  the  elements  composing 
the  parts  of  the  fowl.  It  is  the  source  of  supply  for 
the  making  and  replenishing  of  the  bones,  muscles, 
brains,  nerves  and  all  the  tissues,  for  the  forming  of  the 
feathers  and  the  producing  of  the  egg£. 

The  blood  is  almost  four-fifths  water,  which  acts  as 


108      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

solvent  and  carrier  of  the  compounds  used  by  the  bird's 
body  in  all  its  life  processes. 

To  keep  up  the  supply  of  the  life  liquid,  fresh  ma- 
terials must  be  frequently  furnished, 

NUTRITION. 

Water  to  drink  and  food  to  eat,  supply  the  raw  ma- 
terials which  by  the  processes  of  digestion  and  assim- 
ilation constantly  replenish  the  blood. 

Nature  has  provided  the  fowl  with  a  series  of  or- 
gans wonderfully  well  adapted  for  extracting  from  many 
kinds  of  food,  the  nutrients  which  give  to  the  blood  its 
life  sustaining  qualities. 

The  poultryman  who  is  determined  to  know  as 
much  as  possible  about  his  fowls  may  learn,  at  first 
hand,  many  important  points  regarding  their  nutrition. 
Let  him  take  a  chicken  and  kill  it  by  a  blow  on  the 
head  so  that  the  blood  will  remain  in  the  arteries  and 
veins  of  the  circulatory  system.  Then  commencing  at 
the  head  carefully  cut  out  the  digestive  tract  from  be- 
ginning to  end.  At  the  same  time  examine  and  study 
the  successive  parts  and  the  contiguous  organs  as  to 
their  appearance  and  the  purposes  they  fulfill  in  the 
fowl's  internal  anatomy. 

If  this  form  of  object  lesson  is  studied  in  very  cold 
weather  a  bird's  body  may,  after  death,  be  frozen  stiff 
and  solid.  Then  with  a  saw  it  may  be  cut  lengthwise 
of  the  body  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  mid-line  along 
the  back  bone  and  the  breast  bone,  so  as  to  show  the 
arrangement  of  the  principal  internal  organs  in  their 
natural  positions. 

A  searching  study  of  the  parts  of  the  bird's  body 
will  give  the  earnest  student  a  knowledge  of  its  in- 
ternal structure  which  will  be  one  of  the  best  features 
of  his  proper  preparation  for  poultry  feeding  and  man- 
agement. Repeating  this  method  of  direct  personal  in- 
vestigation with  birds  of  different  sexes,  ages  and  con- 
ditions, with  careful  comparison  of  external  and  internal 
correlations,  will  also  enable  the  progressive  poultry- 
man to  gain  an  understanding  of  his  subject  which 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      109 

must  provide  the  best  possible  foundation  for  wise  mat- 
ing of  his  breeding  stock  and  for  the  most  successful 
treatment  of  his  fowls  under  whatsoever  conditions  he 
may  carry  on  the  poultry  business. 

DISSECTION,   DESRCIPTION. 

The  short,  strong*  somewhat  curved  beak  of  hard, 
horny  substance  is  well  suited  for  seizing  bits  of  food 
or  breaking  into  small  pieces  portions  too  large  for 
swallowing  whole.  Forcing  open  the  bird's  beak  gives 
one  some  idea  of  the  strength  of  the  muscles  which 
operate  the  lower  mandible.  This  will  also  expose  to 
view  the  mouth  and  its  parts.  The  arrow-shaped  tongue 
has  its  pointed  part  fitting  neatly  into  the  cavity  of 
the  lower  mandible,  while  its  broader  portion  extends 
back  to  the  beginning  of  the  throat  By  pressing  a 
finger  up  between  the  lower  jaws  from  the  outside,  the 
tongue  may  be  pushed  up  showing  its  underside  and 
the  muscle  connected  with  its  middle  and  rear  portions. 
Notice  the  difference  in  the  surfaces  of  the  upper  and 
under  sides  of  the  tongue.  The  roof  of  the  mouth  is 
formed  of  tough  cartilege  which  corresponds  in  size 
and  shape  to  the  tongue  but  has  a  slit  extending  length- 
wise along  its  middle. 

When  food  is  taken  into  the  bird's  mouth  there  is  a 
slight  flow  of  saliva  through  minute  openings  which 
connect  with  thin  glands  in  the  sides  of  the  mouth. 
Grains,  bits  of  grass  or  other  green  herbage,  pieces  of 
meat  and  other  food  taken  into  the  mouth  are  not 
there  mingled  and  masticated  but  are  quickly  swal- 
lowed. The  absence  of  teeth  in  the  bird's  mouth  pre- 
cludes the  grinding  of  the  food  before  it  goes  down  the 
food- tube 

By  slitting  open  the  mouth  at  the  sides  from  the 
juncture  of  the  mandibles  to  the  rear  of  the  tongue  all 
the  parts  from  the  point  of  the  beak  to  the  beginning 
of  the  gullet  may  be  yery  completely  exposed  for  ex- 
amination. 

Next  looking  down  the  gullet,  justx  below  the  base 
of  the  tongue,  a  peculiar  opening  Is  seen  which  is  the 


110      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

entrance  to  the  windpipe,  connecting  with;  the  lungs. 
By  cutting  away  the  outer  skin  of  the  neck,  the  spinal 
column,  the  windpipe  and  the  gullet  are  laid  bare.  The 
breathing  tube  is  ribbed,  somewnat  gristly  and  nearly 
transparent,  while  the  foodvtube  is  of  about  the  same 
size  but  smooth,  soft«  flexible  and  of  grayish  color. 
These  two  tubes  run  parellel  and  close  together  along 
the  neck^bone  to  the  clavicle  or  "wish  'bone"  at  the  for- 
ward part  of  the  breast.  Hiere  the  food-tube  enlarges, 
forming  the  "crop."  If  the  bird  had  partaken  of  a 
hearty  meal  a  short  time  before  .being  killed,  this  part 
of  the  digestive  system  will  be  found  to  be  distended 
with  food  mingled  with  waiter  and  digestive  fluids. 
By  opening,  emptying  and  inverting  this  food  recep- 
tacle it  is  seen  to  have  an  inner  lining  of  glandular 
follicles,  through  which  are  supplied  digestive  liquids. 
These  by  mingling  with  the  contents  of  the  crop  serve 
to  soften  and  help  to  make  solvent  the  particles  of 
food. 

By  cutting  the  ribs  and  the  intervening  tissue  on 
both  sides  of  the  bird  from  front  to  rear,  the  lower  or 
breast  part  may  be  removed  exposing  the  interior  of  the 
fowl  to  view.  The  food^tube  is  seen  to  extend  from 
the  crop  towards  the  rear,  between  the  heart  and  the 
liver  which  are  in  the  front  or  chest  cavity.  This 
cavity  also  contains  the  lungs  which  are  pinkish  in 
color  and  lie  close  to  the  backbone.  The  windpipe  as 
it  passes  between  and  beyond  the  clavicle  'bones,  divides 
amid  sends  branches  to  connect  with  each  of  the  two 
lungs.  The  chest  ca'vity  is  separated  from  the  rear 
or  abdominal  cavity  by  the  diaphragm,  a  thin,  almost 
transparent  membrane.  Just  -back  of  this  membrane 
and  near  the  spinal  column  are  the  sexual  organs. 

The  digestive  canal  as  it  passes  to  the  rear  enlarges 
somewhat  to  form  what  is  termed  the  stomach  and 
then  connects  with  the  gizzard.  Cutting  open  the  stom- 
ach and  turning  out  its  inner  linings  shows  the  peculiar 
glandular  surfaces  which  furnish  further  digestive  liq- 
uids and  aiidi  in  the  dissolving  and  assimilating  of  the 
food. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      111 

Dissecting  the  dark  colored,  tough,  muscular  giz- 
zard shows  the  thickness  of  its  walls,  the  roughness 
of  its  interior  linings  and  reveals  its  content  of  pebbles 
or  grit  and  finely  ground  food.  The  grinding,  moisten- 
ing and  mingling  of  the  food  fragments  in  this  "grist 
mill"  of  the  bird  more  than  make  up  for  the  lack  of 
teeth  and  of  mastication  in  the  mouth.  The  mass  of 
food  becomes  pulpy. 

The  gizzard  opens  into  the  intestinal  canal  which 
first  forms  a  long  loop  enclosing  the  pancreas,  an  or- 
gan several  inches  long  and  of  pale  flesh  color.  This 
organ  furnishes  the  pancreatic  juice  which  mingles  with 
the  pulpy  mass  of  nutriment  after  it  passes  from  the 
gizzard  into  the  intestines.  The  small  dark  almost 
black  colored  gall-bladder,  close  to  the  liver,  delivers 
the  bile  which  aids  in  the  digestive  processes.  The 
dark  (bluish)  red  colored  spleen,  an  organ  of  small 
size  found  in  this  region  has  not  been  sufficiently  studied. 
The  kidneys  occupy  pockets  in  the  back  of  the  fowl. 

The  intestines,  folding  many  times,  have  a  length 
of  several  feet  in  an  adult  fowl  and  occupy  most  of  the 
space  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  A  few  inches  from  the 
rear  end  of  the  intestinal  tube,  two  branches  of  this 
tube  extend  along  its  sides  and  form  pockets  which 
are  commonly  called  the  "blind  guts."  The  scientific 
name  of  one  of  these  branches  is  caecum  and  both  to- 
gether are  termed  the  caeca.  In  mature  fowls  these 
branches  of  the  intestine  are  from  five  to  seven  inches 
in  length.  Near  the  end  of  the  intestinal  canal  an 
enlargement  occurs  which  is  named  the  cloaca.  The 
tubes  from  the  kidneys  and  from  the  sexual  organs  of 
the  fowl  connect  with  the  intestinal  canal  at  the  cloaca. 
The  termination  of  the  canal  is  the  vent. 

The  total  length  of  the  digestive  canal  from  beak 
to  vent  in  an  adult  fowl  is  ordinarily  from  four  to  five 
feet.  This  apparatus  digests  most  effectually  all  the 
digestible  portions  of  the  food  swallowed  by  the  bird. 
The  dissolved  portions  pass  through  the  walls  of  the 
digestive  tract  into  the  lymphatic  vessels  which  con- 
tribute their  contents  to  the  blood.  The  indigestible 


112      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

parts,  the  urinary  products,  the  wastes  of  the  system 
are  voided.  The  digestive  system  of  healthy  fowls 
operates  perfectly  under  natural  conditions  of  food  and 
feeding. 

THE    NUTRIENTS. 

The  food  of  fowls  consists  of  digestible  and  indi- 
gestible portions.  The  digestible  part  furnishes  the  nu- 
triment for  replenishing  the  blood.  The  indigestible 
part  serves  to  extend  the  food  or  gives  it  a  bulk  which 
adapts  it  to  treatment  in  the  digestive  processes  as  it 
passes  through  the  digestive  tract.  The  nourishing  parts 
of  the  food  are  termed  nutrients.  These  are  made  up 
of  fifteen  chemical  elements  combined  into  various  or- 
ganic compounds. 

The  nutrients  may  for  convenience  be  divided  into 
several  groups. 

1.  Mineral  Portion: — The  mineral  compounds  of 
the  food  are  frequently  termed  the  "ash  constituents" 
since  they  remain  if  the  feed-stuff  is  subjected  to  com- 
plete burning.  The  phosphates  of  lime  are  very  im- 
portant mineral  substances  of  the  food.  Compounds  of 
sodium,  potassium,  magnesium,  iron  and  chlorine,  are 
also  Included  and  seem  to  be  necessary.  Fluorine  and 
silicon  are  also  present.  Calcium  phosphates  play  a 
very  important  part  in  the  formation  of  the  skeleton  of 
growing  fowls  and  in  renewing  the  bones  of  mature 
birdB. 

Calcium  also  unites  with  carbonic  acid  to  form  the 
carbonate  of  lime  of  which  the  shells  of  eggs  are  mostly 
made.  Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  seems  to  be 
needed  in  greater  quantity  than  is  furnished  to  the 
fowls  by  ordinary  feed-stuffs. 

•2.  Protein  Portion: — All  the  parts  of  the  food 
which  contain  nitrogen  are  grouped  together  as  pro- 
teids.  The  protein  compounds  include  besides  the  all- 
important  nitrogen,  the  constituents  of  water  (wnich 
are  oxygen  and  hydrogen)  and  also  in  some  cases  sul- 
phur, phosphorus  and  iron.  The  digestible  proteids  are 
of  great  value  because  these  mainly  go  to  make  flesh  or 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      113 

muscle,  trains  and  nerves.  These  compounds  also 
form  the  collagen  of  the  tendons,  the  ossein  of  the 
skeleton  and  parts  of  the  skin,  feathers,  'beak,  toe- 
nails,  etc.  The  white  of  the  egg  (albumen)  is  almost 
pure  protein. 

The  proteids  may  aid  in  keeping  up  the  body  tem- 
perature in  case  of  necessity. 

These  nitrogenous  constituents  are  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  the  continued  life  or  growth  of  the  fowl. 

3.  Carbohydrate   Portion: — A   very   large   part    of 
some  of  the  favorite  foods  of  fowls  consists  of  starch, 
sugar  and  fiber  made  up  chemically  of  carbon  and  the 
elements  of  water  (oxygen  and  hydrogen).    This  group 
receives  the  name  of  carbohydrates. 

These  nutrients,  especially  the  digestible  sugars  and 
starches  are  valuable  and  economical  sources  of  heat 
and  energy  and  are  also  stored  in  the  fowl's  body  in  the 
form  of  fat. 

4.  Fatty  Portion: — Many  foods  contain  fats  or  oila 
which  are  also  composed  of  cartoon,  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen.   These  fatty  constituents  have  on  the  average  two 
and  one-fourth  times  the  heating  power  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, when  oxidized  in  the  fowl's  system  to  main- 
tain body  temperature.    When  more  fatty  nutrients  are 
digested  and  assimilated  by  the  fowl  than  are  needed 
it  usually  proceeds  to  store  up  the  surplus  in  the  form 
of  fat    A  well-fed,  caponized  chicken  may  thus  increase 
in  plumpness  until  one-third  of  its  body  weight  is  com- 
posed of  fat 

THE   FEED-STUFFS. 

Fowls  are  omnivorous,  eating  nearly  all  things  that 
are  eatable. 

Their  food  should  be  organic,  i.  e.  of  plant  or  ani- 
mal origin. 

Whatever  feed-stuffs  are  used  have  their  nourish- 
ing value  determined  by  the  digestible  nutrients  which 
the  fowls  extract  from-  them  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

The   necessary   supplies    for   the  digestive   system 


114      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

may  foe  all  included  in  four  groups  graphically  expressed 
by  the  following  four  words: 

GRITS,  GRAINS,   GREENS,  GRUBS. 

1.  Grits  include  gravel,  small  pebbles,  coarse  sand, 
broken  crockery  or  other  hard  substances  of  the  right 
size  for  use  as  milestones  in  the  fowl's  gizzard.     If  the 
grinding  materials  are  supplied  in  the  form  of  granu- 
lated bone,  nourishment  is  also  furnished  in  tbJe  form 
of  phosphate  of  lime  which  is  of  use  in  forming  and 
repairing   the   bony   framework    of   the   fowl.     Crushed 
oyster-shells  and  clam-shells  answer  the  purpose  of  grit 
to  some  extent  and  also  furnish  carbonate  of  lime  for 
making  the  shells  of  .the  hens'  eggs. 

2.  Grains  such  as  wheat,  corn   (maize),  oats,  bar- 
ley, rice,  etc.,  are  largely  composed  of  starch  and  con- 
tain some  oily,  mineral  and  nitrogenous  nutrients. 

The  seeds  of  some  varieties  of  leguminous  crops, 
such  ^as  peas  and  beans  supply  a  larger  proportion  of 
nitrogenous  nutrients  than  the  regular  grain  crops. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  seeds  of  sunflowers  and  hemp 
and  these  also  contain  an  extra  amount  of  oily  com- 
pounds. 

The  seeds  of  numerous  other  plants  are  relished  by 
poultry  and  supply  mainly  the  carbohydrates,  particu- 
larly starch  and  fiber. 

3.  Green   food   is   amply   supplied   in  the  growing 
season  by  the   fresh  blades   of  young   grass  OT   grain. 
Leafy  garden  crops  like  lettuce,  kale,  rape,  swiss  chard, 
beet-leaves,     spinach     and     cabbage     furnish    excellent 
"greens"  for  the  fowls. 

Chick-weed  is  a  favorite  green  food  for  chickens. 
Cabbages,  mangolds,  turnips  and  potatoes  are  often 
fed  to  fowls  when  the  cold  weather  cuts  off  the  supply 
of  green  grass  or  when  the  flocks  are  kept  in  confine- 
ment. 

The  leaves  of  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  are  especially 
excellent  substitutes  for  fresh  green  food  in  the  winter 
time,  and  furnish  considerable  quantities  of  protein 
nutrients. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      115 


A    BARKED    KUCK    PULLET 
Courtesy  W.  F.  Scholz 


116      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

All  of  the  green  food®  mentioned  contain  a  large 
amount  of  fiber.  The  starchy,  fatty  and  mineral  nutri- 
emts  are  also  included  in  varying  degrees. 

The  fresh,  rapidly  growing  green  crops  contain  a 
very  large  proportion  of  water  which  helps  to  give  them 
succulence.  Besides  supplying  some  nourishment  these 
feed-stuffs  help  to  keep  the  digestive  system  in  good 
order  and  tend  especially  to  prevent  constipation  of 
the  intestinal  canal.  They  also  have  a  beneficial  effect 
upon  the  blood  and  the  breeding  organs  and  their  pro- 
ducts. Apples  and  other  fruits  are  sometimes  fed  to 
poultry. 

4.  Grubs,  grasshoppers,  flies  and  other  insects,  as 
well  as  worms  and  larvae  of  various  kinds  detected  by 
the  alert  eyes  of  chickens  on  range  are  quickly  snapped 
up  and  swallowed.  By  this  natural  plan  of  feeding,  the 
birds  obtain  considerable  quantities  of  protein  nutrients 
to  balance  the  starchy  grains  and  seeds  which  they 
eat.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  and  at  certain  seasons 
is  this  supply  ever  adequate. 

To  provide  protein  food  in  sufficient  quantity  it 
usually  becomes  necessary  to  feed  to  the  flocks  animal 
food  in  some  form.  Meat  is  a  favorite  protein  food. 
Use  is  made  of  the  flesh  of  horses,  cattle,  rabbits,  etc. 
Beef  scraps  and  animal  meal  are  by-products  of  the 
great  packing  houses,  which  are  sold  in  large  Quantities 
for  feeding  to  poultry.  Fresh  bones  are  cut  to  suitable 
sizes  for  feeding  to  fowls.  Fish  is  sometimes  utilized 
for  the  same  purpose.  Skim  milk,  buttermilk  and  milk 
curds  are  rich  ini  casein  which  is  a  valuable  protein 
nutrient. 

As  already  suggested  under  grain  foods,  there  are 
some  kinds  of  beans  and  peas  that  fowls  will  eat  as 
well  as  clover  and  alfalfa  and  these  crops  supply  con- 
siderable vegetable  protein. 

CONDITIONS   OF   FEEDS    AND  FEEDING. 

There  is  naturally  great  variation  In  the  feeding 
stuffs  used  and  in  the  methods  of  feeding  for  the  flocks 
of  fowls  kept  in  different  circumstances.  No  one  plan 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      117 

can    be    developed    which   will    be   copied    and    applied 
successfully  by  all  poultry  feeders. 

It  is  practicable,  however,  to  work  out  a  separate 
system  of  management  for  each  case  and  this  is  one  of 
the  places  where  a  good  brain  is  of  great  value  in  the 
poultry  business.  The  poultryman  should  study  the 
feeding  problem  for  his  flock  with  a  determination  to 
gain  the  right  solution,  which  should  accord  with  the 
facts  that  have  become  established  through  practical 
experience  and  scientific  experimentation  in  poultry 
feeding. 

1.  The  available  feed-stuffs  may  first  be  considered. 
These  include  any  and  all  crops  suited  to  poultry  feed- 
ing that  are  grown  on  the  place  where  the  fowls  are 
kept  or  on  the  farms  in  the  locality  and  all  the  poultry 
feeds  sold  on  the  markets  in  the  vicinity  or  obtainable 
from  more  distant  markets.    The  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  feeds  available  and  the  cost  of  their  production 
or  purchase  affect  the  economy  of  feeding  sufficiently  to 
make  this  a  matter  worthy  of  thorough  investigation. 

2.  The  feeding  materials  must  be  stricly  wholesome 
in  order  that  the  nutriment  which  they  furnish  shall 
produce  the  best  results  without  danger  of  inducing  un- 
healthy conditions  in  the  fowls. 

3.  The  food-  should  be  palatable  so  that  by  its  ap- 
petizing  taste   it  will  induce   full   feeding,    up  to   the 
capacity  of  the  fowls  to  use  the  nourishment  for  their 
maintenance  and  the  making  of  profitable  poultry  pro- 
ducts. 

Considerable  food  is  needed  to  maintain  the  bird's 
body,  keeping  it  warm,  providing  for  the  digestion  and 
assimilation  of  the  nutrients,  pushing  the  blood  through 
the  circulatory  system,  furnishing  energy  for  muscular 
action  in  the  movements  of  the  body,  etc.  It  is  mainly 
the  extra  food  eaten  and  used  for  the  further  purposes 
of  growth,  fattening  and  egg-production  that  brings 
financial  profit  Condimental  foods  should  not  be  used. 

4.  The  feeding  stuffs  should  be  supplied  in  con- 
siderable variety  to  increase  the  attractiveness  of  eat- 
ing and  prevent  the  birds'  appetites  becoming  cloyed. 


118      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

The  many  kinds  of  food  which,  are  relished  by  land 
fowl  make  it  possible  to  easily  vary  their  rations  suf- 
ficiently to  encourage  ample  eating.  Gradual  and  rea- 
sonable changes  in  their  diet  also  tend  sometimes  to  pre- 
vent the  overworking  of  one  or  more  of  the  organs  of 
digestion. 

5.  The    feed-stuffs    are    usually   best    fed    in    their 
natural    state.     Grinding,    breaking  and  cutting  are   of 
use  when  necessary  to  reduce  the  materials  in  size  so 
that  they  may  be  readily  swallowed. 

Cooking  the  food  seems  to  be  undesirable  except 
in  a  few  cases  where  it  improves  the  flavor  of  the  article 
of  diet  or  annihilates  disease  germs*  that  might  possibly 
be  conveyed  by  the  food  to  the  fowl. 

Even  the  moistening  of  the  food  with  water  is  ordi- 
narily a  disadvantage,  although  it  may  be  allowable 
in  some  cases  where  a  saving  in  expense  is  secured. 
Where  flocks  of  hens  are  being  urged  to  the  largest 
possible  production  of  eggs  for  market  in  cold  weather 
they  are  sometimes  fed  with  warm  mashes  made  up 
of  wheat  middlings,  bran,  corn  meal,  animal  meal  or 
finely  ground  beef  scraps  and  perhaps  some  clover  meal 
or  alfalfa  meal.  If  these  feed-stuffs  in  finely  ground 
form  furnish  the  necessary  nutrients  for  a  part  of  the 
day's  ration  at  a  saving  of  cost  for  food,  reduce  some- 
what the  work  of  the  overtaxed  digestive  system  in 
grinding,  and  enable  the  fowls  to  manufacture  a  larger 
quantity  of  food  into  a  finished  market  product  than 
they  otherwise  would,  there  is  some  reason  in  feeding 
them  once  a  day  in  moist,  crumbly  mashes. 

For  growing  chickens  that  are  to  become  breeders 
and  for  fowls  that  are  breeding,  the  more  natural  method 
of  feeding  grains  whole,  and  other  foods  in  dry,  granu- 
lated form  seems  desirable.  The  poultryman  has  here 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  good  judgment  according 
to  the  accompanying  conditions  and  the  purpose  in  feed- 
ing. 

6.  The   rations   should    be    balanced   so   that   there 
will  be  supplied  to  the  fowls  daily,  enough  mineral  con- 
stituents,   fatty    nutrients    and    carbohydrates    and    cer- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      119 


S.    C.   BUFF   ORPINGTON 


ourtesy  P.  W.  Hutton 


120      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

tainly  sufficient  protein  compounds,  all  in  digestible 
form,  to  enable  the  birds,  according  to  their  condition 
and  surroundings,  to  maintain  their  bodies  in  life  and 
health  and  make  whatever  products  are  required,  it 
is  true  economy  to  provide  the  right  proportion  of  each 
class  of  nutrients  because  in  this  way  the  actual  needs 
of  the  bird's  body  are  promptly  and  fully  met,  without 
waste  and  with  directness,  as  will  1>e  more  fully  ex- 
plained. 

7.  The  frequency  of  feeding  is  largely  a  matter 
of  habit.  Fowls  in  the  wild  state  usually  eat  little  at 
a  time  and  as  often  as  food  is  foun*di.  In  the  search 
for  their  daily  food  the  birds  take  considerable  exercise. 

Any  plan  of  feeding  which  secures  the  advantages 
of  these  natural  conditions  will  answer  for  domesticated 
fowls. 

Inordinate  gorging,  especially  with  finely  ground 
feeds  or  with  wet  mashes  and  the  lack  of  bodily  exer- 
cise are  to  be  avoided. 

Hopper  feeding  with  dry  feed-stuffs,  the  food  being 
constantly  within  reach  of  the  fowls,  operates  all  right 
when  the  fowls  are  accustomed  to  it  and  have  ample 
range. 

Throwing  a  portion  of  the  grains  into  straw  litter 
so  that  the  fowls  will  search  and  scratch  for  a  part  of 
their  daily  rations,  has  proved  especially  beneficial  for 
fowls  confined  in  houses  during  cold  seasons  and  in- 
clement weather. 

£.  Plenty  of  pure,  fresh  air  for  breathing  must 
accompany  any  successful  method  of  feeding.  The 
carbonaceous  nutrients  (fats,  starches,  sugars,  etc.)  of 
the  food,  after  they  become  assimilated  are  of  use  in 
keeping  up  the  body  temperature  only  as  they  become 
oxidized,  for  which  purpose  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
breathed  in  by  the  birds  is  needed. 

9.  Prevention  of  loss  of  blood  or  of  nutrients  of 
the  food  by  the  attacks  of  external  and  internal  para- 
sites is  necessary.  Nutriment  which  goes  to  feed  pestif- 
erous mites  and  intestinal  worms  certainly  does  not 
become  transformed  into  flesh,  feathers  or  eggs. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      121 

10.  A  suitable  strain  of  fowls  should  be  selected 
for  accomplishing  the'  purposes  of  the  poultry  feeder. 
The  birds  must  be  adapted  to  the  local  conditions. 

The  best  of  rations  and  the  most  careful  system  of 
feeding  are  fully  effective  only  when  the  fowls  have 
the  capacity  to  promptly  utilize  the  food  and  the  powers 
to  transform  its  digestible  nutrients  into  desirable  and 
valuable  products.  The  flock  should,  in  fact,  possess 
the  feeding  quality  in  superior  degree.  According  to 
the  object  of  the  poultryman  the  fowls  should  be  easy 
keeping  i.  e.  maintaining  themselves  on  a  reasonable  pro- 
portion of  the  food  consumed,  early  maturing  and  read- 
ily fattening  if  to  be  disposed  of  as  dressed  poultry, 
excellent  layers  if  eggs  are  the  product  mostly  desired 
and  growing  fine  feathers  if  exhibition  plumage  is  the 
main  thing. 

SCIENTIFIC  FOUNDATION   OF  FEEDING. 

Since  the  value  of  a  food  for  furnishing  nourish- 
ment depends  solely  upon  the  nutrients  which  can  be 
extracted  from  it  by  the  processes  of  digestion  it-  is  pos- 
sible to  measure  and  compare  the  valuations  of  different 
feed-stuffs. 

This  knowledge  being  acquired  it  is  then  practicable 
to  mingle  several  feed-stuffs  in  a  daily  ration  so  that 
the  quantities  and  proportions  of  the  total  digestible 
nutrients  contained  in  the  complete  ration  shall  fit  the 
needs  of  the  fowls.  Such  a  ration  will  be  well  adapated 
to  the  purpose  of  feeding  according  to  the  season,  the 
condition  of  the  fowls,  their  environment  and  the  pro- 
ducts they  are  expected  to  make. 

By  chemical  analysis  the  composition  of  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  feed-stuffs  has  been  ascertained.  Only  a 
percentage  of  each  of  the  compounds  contained  in  a 
feed-stuff  is  digestible,  however. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  in  feeding  ani- 
mals in  order  to  learn  what  the  percentages  of  digesti- 
bility really  are.  These  percentages  are  termed  the 
co-efficients  of  digestibility  and  they  state  the  averages 
of  actual  nourishment  obtainable,  under  the  conditions 


122      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

of  experimentation,,  from  the  nutrients  of  the  feed-stuffs 
employed  by  the  animials  fecL 

The  results  of  numerous  chemical  analyses  and  of 
many  feeding  experiments  are  given  in  the  following 
table  for  the  principal  feed-stuffs  available  for  poultry. 

TABLE   A. 
PRINCIPAL    POULTRY    FEED-STUFFS. 

Stating  the  Dry  Matter,  Ash,  Nutrients  and  Fuel  Value 
in  One  Pound  of  Each.     Also  the  Nutritive  Ratio. 


FEED  STUFFS 

$ 

"rt 

>> 
Q 

jz 

en 

< 

DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS 

<u 

j3 

"re 
> 

"3 

3 

h 

Nutritive  Ratio 

a 

2 

OH 

Carbohy- 
drates 

to 

fe 

GRAINS,  MEALS,  ETC. 
Wheat 

Lb. 

.895 
.840 
.885 
891 

Lb. 

.018 
.038 
.058 
.015 
.014 
.015 
.013 
.030 
.020 
.024 
.019 
.020 
.048 
.030 

.0:26 

.030 
.013 
.00-3 
.026 
.047 
.034 
.020 
.056 
.057 
.064 
008' 

Lb. 

.102S 
.1270 
.1201 
.0714 
.0626 
.0476 
.3309 
.0926 
.1153 
.0869 
.0912 
.1000 
.2234 
.1929 
.1630 
.1270 
.0578. 
.0680 
.1677 
.3400 
.2360 
1.000 
.3069 
.2'876 
.1872 
.0780 

Lb. 

.6921 
.5315 
.4123 
.6612 
.6526 
.6006 
.3996 
.4834 
.5206 
.6483 
.6973 
.6450 
.3614 
.3165 
,2140 
.5800 
.5358 
.7740 
.'51-78 
.2880 
.5950 
.4500 
.3872 
.32i81 
.4350 
(52.00 

Lb. 

.0168 
.0340 
.0287 
.0497 
.0350 
.0294 
.0475 
.0418 
.0593 
.0160 
.0136 

.02:20 

.0621 
.0456 
.2120 
.  03*30 
.0133 
.0030 
.0065 
.1690 
.0170 
.'2100 
.0290 
.0706 
.0116 
.Of!  20 

Cal- 

ori's 
1548" 
1370 
1111 
1572 
1478 
1330 
1559 
1247 
1433 
1435 
1524 
1575 
1350 
1140 
1586 
1454 
1160 
16.2.5 
1302 
1881 
1615 
1909 
1412 
1443 
1206 
1,200 

1:7.1 
1:4.8 
1:4 
1:10.S 
1:11.7 
1:14 
1:1.5 
1:6.2 
1:5.7 
1:7.9 
1:8 
1:7.4 
1:2.3 
1:2.2 
1:4.3 
1:5.1 
1:9.8 
1:11.5 
1:3.2 
1:2 
1:2,7 
1:5 
1:1.5 
1:1.7 
1:2.5 
1  -7 

Wheat  JVtiddlings... 
Wheat   Bran. 

Indian   Corn  

Corn  Meal  

.850 
.849 
.905 
.890 
.921 
.891 
.884 
.874 
.882 
.885 
.914 
.865 
.875 
.877 
.8*95 
89? 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal. 
Gluten    Meal  

Oats  

Oat  Meal. 

Barley  

Rye    

*  Buckwheat  

Buckwheat  Mid'li'gs 
Buckwheat  Bran  .  .  . 
*Sunflower  Seed.  .  .  . 
*  Millet   ..     . 

Kafir  Corn  

*Rice    

Pea  Meal 

*  So  ja  Beans  

*Cow  Peas.  ..... 

.8'81 
.920 
.901 
.908 
.898 
.647 

*Hemp   Seed  
Linseed/  Meal  (N.P.) 
Linseed  Meal  (o.p.) 
Malt    Sprouts 

White  Bread.  . 

PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      123 


VEGETABLES,  ETC.      Lb. 


Green  Grass. . 
Green  Clover.. 
Green  Alfalfa. 
Mixed  Hay.... 
Clover  Hay. . . 
Alfalfa  Hay.. 

Mangold's    

Turnips 

Carrots   

Potatoes   

"•Cabbages    . . . 

*Lettuce   .. 

*0nions  

*Apples  


ANIMAL   FEEDS 


Beef  Scraps 

Animal  Meal 

*  Dried    Bloodi 

*FreshrCut  Bone. . . 

Dried  Fish 

*Horse   Flesh 

Eggs  (less  shells) . . 

Skim-milk    

Separator  Milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey  . 


.347 
.292 
.282 

.'871 

,847 
.916 
.091 
.095 
.114 
.511 
.095 
.041 
.124 
.159 

Lb. 

.987 


.908 
.933 
.930. 
.892 
.257 
.345 


.094 
.090) 


Lb.    Lb.     Lb. 


,023 
.021 
02-7 
055 
062 
074 
,010 
008 
010 
010 
014 
008 
006 
002 

Lb. 

163 


,041 
.066 
.245 
.292! 
.014 
009 


.0206 
.0307 
.03'89 
.042:2 
.0738 
.1058 
.0103 
.0081 
.0081 
.0136 
.0^240 
.0100 
.0140 
.0020 

Lb. 


.4'850 

.asso 

.6-510 
.2230 
.4840 
.2170 
.1270| 

096l.007j.O310 
.030l| 
.0282) 

.  062,| .  004  (.00561 


.007). 
.007 1 , 


.2124 
.1482 
.1120 
.4326 

.#815; 

.3733 
.0566 
.064'6 
.0783 
.1«43 
.0390 
.0,160 
.0940 
.1430 

Lb, 


0530 


0461| 
0510] 
,0470 
0600 


Lb. 

.0058 
.0069 
.0041 
.0133 
.0131 
.0138 
.0011 
.0011 
.0022 

.0040 
.0020 
.0030 
.0030 

Lb. 

.15.20 
.0495 
.1630 
.1650 
,1160 
.Oi260 
.0880 
.0090 
.0030 
.0050 
.0010 


ori's 
458 
362 
298 
939 
923 
949 
129 
140 
170 
331 
133 
57 
213 
2«2 

Cal- 

ori's- 

1544 

744 

1997 

1111 

1390 

516 

608 

181 

164 

161 

108 


1:11 

1:5.3 

1:3.1 

1:11 

1:5.7 

1:3.9 

1:5.7 

1:8.3 

1:10.3 

1:12 

1:2 

1:2.1 

1:7.2 

1:74.9 


0.7 

0.4 

0.65 

1.7 

0.54 

0.27 


9.3 


*The  digestibility  of  these  feed>-stuffs  has  not  been 
determined.  The  figures  for  them  are  based  on  chemi- 
cal analyses. 

The  figures  of  Table  A  are  averages.  There  Is  some 
variation  in  the  composition  and  digestibility  of  a  given 
kind  of  feed-stuff.  For  example  one  crop  of  oats  may 
vary  considerably  from  another  in  the  content  of  starch, 
fiber,  etc.,  and  hence  in  feeding  value. 

In  scientific  feeding  experiments,  samples  of  the 
actual  feed-stuffs  used  are  chemically  analyzed  to  insure 
accuracy  in  the  calculation  of  results. 

The  tabulations  according  to  averages  are,  however, 
sufficiently  accurate  for  use  in  calculating  trial  rations 
in  practical  poultry  feeding. 

In  studying  the  dlata  given  in  Table  A  it  will  be 


124      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

seen  that  there  are  two  ways  of  expressing  the  value 
of  a  feedrstuff.  First,  the  quantity  of  heating  power 
contained  in  a  given  weight  of  the  feed-stuff  may  be  de- 
termined. This  is  termed  its  "fuel  value"  and  is  ex- 
pressed in  Cailories  or  "heat  units."  A  Calorie  signi- 
fies the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  on'e  pound  of  water  fooir  degrees  Fahrenheit..  Ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  work  this  i<s>  equivalent  to  the  power 
necessary  to  lift  one  ton  vertically  1.53  feet.  The  fuel 
value  of  the  nutrients  is  calculated  according  to  the 
following  method: 

One  pound  of  digestible  fat  in  a  food  is  considered 
to  have  a  heating  power  of  4220  Calories.  One  pound 
of  either  digestible  carbohydrates  or  piroteidB*  is  con- 
sidered to  have  ai  heating  value  equivalent  to  1'860  Cal- 
ories. 

To  calculate  the  beating  value  of  one  pound  of  In- 
dian Corn  (Maize)  for  example,  proceed  as  follows: 
Reference  to  Table  A  shows  that  in  one  pound  of 
corn  there  are  .0714  of  a  pound!  of  digestible  protein 
and  .6612  of  a  pound  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  Add- 
ing these  two  amounts  gives  .7326  of  a  pound  of  nutri- 
ents and  multiplying  this  sum  by  1860  gives  1362.6 
Calories.  The  digestible  fat  in  one  pound  of  corn  is 
found  to  be  .0497  of  one  pound,  which  multiplied  by 
4220  gives  a  result  of  209.7  Calories.  Adding  1362.6 
to  209.7  gives  a  total  of  1572  Calories,  which  expresses 
the  fuel  value  or  quantity  of  heating  power  contained 
on  the  average  in  one  pound1  of  corn. 

Secondly,  the  quality  of  a  feed-stuff  may  be  meas- 
ured and  expressed  by  the  proportion  of  its  nitrogenous 
to  its  non-nitrogenous  digestible  nutrients,  which  is 
termed  its  "nutritive  ratio." 

As  the  fats  have  two  and  one-fourth  times  the 
heating  power  of  the  carbohydrates  (starches,  sugars, 
fibres),  the  weight  of  the  fatty  nutrients  is  multiplied 
by  two  and  one-fourth  to  bring  all  the  non>-nitrogenous 
nutrients  to  one  level  of  value  in)  calculating  the  ratio. 
Take  again  for  example  the  case  of  Indian  Corn.  Re- 
ferring to  Table  A,  one  pound  of  Corn  is  found  to  have 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      125 

.0497  of  a  pound  of  digestible  fat  which,  multiplied  by 
2  1-4  gives  .1118  of  a  pound.  Adding  this  amount  to 
the  content  of  digestible  carbohydrates  .6612  of  a  pound 
gives  a  total  of  .7730  of  a  pound  expressed  in  terms  of 
digestible  carbohydrates.  The  digestible  protein  In 
one  pound  of  Corn  is  found  in  Table  A  to  be  .0714  of 
a  pound.  Dividing  the  total  of  nont-nitrogenous  diges- 
tible nutrients  .7730  by  the  digestible  protein  .0714  gives 
a  result  of  10.8  and  the  proportion  may  be  expressed  as 
follows: 

Protein    Carbohydrates  Protein    Carbohydrates 

.0714         :         .7730          equals          1.  :  10.8 

Indian  Corn  is  thus  shown  to  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1:10.8  i.  e.  one  part  of  digestible  protein  to  ten  and 
eight-tenths  parts  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fats 
expressed  in  terms  of  carbohydrates.  In  other  words 
Corn  is  a  starchy  food  and  excellent  to  feed  for  keeping 
up  body  temperature  and  for  fattening.  A  feed"Stuff 
having  a  nutritive  ratio  above  1:8  is  considered  to  have 
a  wide  ratio.  A  ratio  of  1:5.5  or  under  is  narrow.  One 
between  these  extremes  (e.  g.  1:6)  is  said  to  be  a 
medium  ratio. 

It  is  evident  that  a  poultry  food  having  a  narrow 
nutritive  ratio  is  comparatively  rich  in  protein  and 
therefore  useful  to  feed  for  growth  and  for  egg-produc- 
tion. A  food  having  a  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  adapted 
for  use  in  a  fattening  ration  because  of  its  large  con- 
tent of  starch  or  fat  or  both. 

FEEDING   STANDARDS. 

In  arranging  the  rations  for  feeding  his  flocks  the 
poultryman  should  seek  to  learn  definitely  what  heat- 
ing power,  nutritive  ratio  and  total  weight  of  digestive 
nutrients  will  enable  his  fowls  to  do  their  best  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  he  has  in  view  and  considering  all 
the  surrounding  conditions. 

In  feeding  horses  and  cattle  it  is  not  difficult  to 
fit  the  ration  to  the  needs  of  each  individual  animal  but 
in  feeding  poultry  this  is  impracticable.  Fowls  are  fed 


126      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

in  flocks  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  that  the  birds  of 
each  group  should  be  of  one  breed  or  variety,  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  age  and  alike  in  body  condition. 
The  ration  is  then  figured  to  fit  the  average  of  the 
flock. 


W  H  I T  K     W  V  A N  1  >OTTE 

Courtesy  Chas.  V.  Keeler 

The  idea  is  to  supply  a  scientific  foundation  for 
starting  in  feeding  and  avoid  the  necessity  of  working 
out  the  problem  through  costly  experience. 

Having  reckoned  a  triad  ration  according  to  a 
standard,  the  ration)  is  tested  in  practice.  The  fowls 
show  the  effects  of  the  feeding  and  the  feeder  interprets 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      127 

the  results.  He  makes  this  matter  a  constant  study 
until  he  has  the  ration  adjusted'  to  suit  the  case.  If 
changes  in  the  ration  seem  to  be  called  for  he  makes 
them  gradually  according  to  his  best  judgment  and 
finally  develops  a  feeding  system  that  is  scientific,  sen- 
sible and  successful.  The  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  has,  by  careful  experimentation  with 
poultry,  determined'  several  standards  for  feeding  ra- 
tions which  should  prove  very  helpful  as  guides  in 
reckoning  rations  for  certain  conditions  and  purposes. 

These  standards  state  the  average  quantities  of  dry 
matter,  mineral  constituents,  digestible  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate and  fat  nutrients,  the  fuel  value  and  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  the  daily  rations  which,  in  the  experiments, 
produced  the  best  results. 

First  it  will  be  of  interest  to  note  what  amounts  of 
the  different  nutrients  are  necessary  to  simply  maintain 
mature  fowls  in  healthy  condition^  without  gain  or  loss 
of  body-weight  and  without  producing  eggs  or  new 
feathers. 

STANDARDS     FOR     MAINTENANCE     RATIONS. 

Digestible  Nutrients   Per   Day,   Per  Each  100   Lbs. 
Live  Weight  of  Fowls. 


Live  Weight'      |*          ^       f»       |i         3 
>    •»  JL     !   «!_3  I    4*s 


Hens  3-5  Ibs.    3.90 


Hens  5-7 


2.70 


.1-5      .50  I  2.95  I  .30  I  7£80  I  1:7.4 
.10      .40      2.00      .20      5300      1:6.2 


The  experiment  station  found  the  following  daily 
ration  sufficiently  close  to  the  standard  requirements  for 
hens  of  five  to  seven  pounds  live  weight:  Cracked)  corn 
(maize)  1  lib.,  corn  meal  1  lb.,  ground  oats  1-2  lb.f 
wheat  middlings  1-2  lb.,  clover  hay  1-2  lb.,  fresh  bone 
1-4  lb.,  meat  scraps  l-#  lb. 

The  poultryman  is  not  usually  satisfied  to  have  his 
hens  simply  maintain  themselves  without  gain  or  pro- 


128      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


duction,  but  the  maintenance  standard  shows  emphat- 
icaJHy  that  a  large  amount  of  the  rations  consumed  by 
fowls  is  used  to  keep  them  in  life  andi  health. 

Wihen  in  adddtion  to  maintenance,  it  is  desired  to 
secure  from)  the  fowls  a  large  production  of  eggs  the 
rations  must  'be  larger  and  also  richer  in  protein  nutri- 
ents. 

STANDARDS     FOB     LAYING     RATIONS. 

Digestive  Nutrients  Per  Day,  Per  Each  100  Ibs. 
Live  Weight  of  Fowls. 


^ 

3 

V 

$ 

,  hH 
>'    1 

g 

5« 

13  i* 

V 

Live  Weight 

<J 

H 

D 

•m 

£ 

J3(4) 

§5 

p 

J 

>'i 

13 

'p 

Hens  3-5  Ibs.. 

5.50 

.30 

1.00  I  3.75 

.35  110,300 

1:4.6 

Hens  5-8  Ibs.. 

3.30 

.20 

.6<5  |  2,25 

.20  1  6,240 

1:4.2 

A  combination  of  feed-stuffs  which  meets  thfe  re- 
quirements of  the  standard  for  hems  of  3-5  Ibs.  live 
weight  is  the  following:  Corn  (maize)  3  Ibs.,  wheat  2 
Ibs.,  beef  scrap®  1  lb.,  clover  hay  1  Ib.  This  is  especially 
well  adapted  for  dry  feeding  in  the  winter  time. 

The  experiment  station  suggests  the  following  daily 
ration  for  hens  of  5-8  Ibs.  live  weight:  Cracked)  corn 
1  lb.,  wheat  3-4  lb.,  corn  meal  3-4  lb.,  wheat  middlings 
1-2  lb.,  buckwheat  middlings  1-2  lb.,  animal  meal  1-2 
lb.,  fresh  bone  2-3  lb.,  young  green  alfalfa  3-4  lb.  This 
daily  ration  is  adapted'  to  summer  feeding  and  the 
ground  feed-stuffs  may,  if  desired,  be  fed  as  moist  mash- 
es or,  if  preferred,  these  may  be  fed!  dry  in  hoppers. 

Growing  chickens  require  rations  having  narrow 
nutritive  ratios,  even  narrower  than  those  for  lay- 
ing hens.  Protetin  nutrients  must  be  supplied  to  them 
abundantly  for  use  in  making  muscles,  the  ossein  of 
bones,  the  collagen  of  tendons  and  the  nitrogenous  parts 
of  brains,  nerves,  feathers,  etc.,  etc. 

These  standard®  are  for  feeding  chickens  from  hatch- 
ing time  up  to  three  months  of  age. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      129 


STANDARDS    FOB    GROWING    RATIONS. 

Digestive  Nutrients  Per  Day,   Per  Each 
100  Lbs.  Live  Weight 


CHICKS 

JS 

<-!     . 

i»l 

JS 

Is 

0 

SJS 

j^     5j  |S      | 

~0 

S.9 

Acre  Period                        ir'""1 

<  '£    5"^   S 

!<3 

& 

First  two  weeks  

10.1 

.6 

2.0 

7.2 

18,800 

1:4.1 

Two  to  four  weeks.  .  . 

9.6 

.7 

2.2 

6.2 

.5 

17,730 

1:3.4 

Four  to  six  weeks  .  .  . 

8.6 

.6 

2.0 

5.6 

.4 

15,640 

1:3.3 

Six  to  eight  weeks.  .  . 

7.4 

.5 

1.6 

4.9 

.4 

13,780 

1:3.7 

Eight  to  ten  weeks  .  .  . 

6.4 

.5 

1.2 

4.4 

.3 

11,680 

1:4.3 

Ten  to  twelve  weeks 

5.4 

.4 

1.0 

3.7 

.3 

10,000 

1:4.4 

A  sample  (Mly  ration,  suggested  by  the  station, 
for  feeding  chicks  during  the  second  week  includes  the 
following  feed-stuffs"!  Cracked  wheat  4  Ibs.,  granulated 
oat  meal  2  Ibs.,  wheat  middlings  1-2  lb.,  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings 1-2  lb.,  ground  oats  1-2  lb.,  linseed  meal  (aid 
process)  1-2  lb.,  animal .  meal  2  1-4  Ibs.,  young  green 
alfalfa  2  3-4  Ibs. 

While  this  combination  meets  with  the  standard 
requirements  as  to  digestible  nutrients  it  may  contain 
too  much  finely  ground  materials  to  suit  some  chick 
feeders.  These  portions,  however,  need  not  necessarily 
be  made  into  a  moist  mash  for  feeding.  Chicks  can  be 
taught  to  eat  meals  in  dry  form  out  of  hoppers.  The 
quantity  of  food  given  in  this  sample  daily  ration  will 
answer  for  about  one  thousand  chicks. 

As  already  stated  in  Chapter  IV,  a  balanced  ration 
for  feeding  growing  chicks  may  be  made  up  of  feed- 
stuffs  in  granular  dry  form.  The  mixture  of  cracked 
corn  3  Ibs.,  wheat  3  Ibs.,  beef  scraps  2  Ibs.,  and  cut 
clover  2  Ibs.,  answers  fairly  well  the  requirements  of 
the  standard  for  chicks  about  seven  weeks  old. 

BALANCING    RATIONS. 

To  illustrate  the  method  of  reckoning  and  correct- 


130      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

ing  rations  take  the  case  of  the  sample  ration  suggested 
for  laying  hens  of  3  to  5  Ibs.  live  weight. 

Consulting  Talblie  A  for  the  necessary  data/  and  tak- 
ing, to  start  with,  3  Ibs.  of  corn  and-  2  11>s<.  of  wheat 
the  constituents  are  written  in  tabular  form.  By  add- 
ing the  columns  of  nutrients  and  comparing  with  the 
standard  it  is  seen  that  the  totals  are  not  sufficient  and 
that  the  fuel  value  isi  too  small.  Computation  shows 
that  the  nutritive  ratio  (1:9)  is  altogether  too  wid^e. 

Bringing  to  the  ration  1  1T>.  of  beef  scraps,  adding 
and  computing  again,  shows  on  comparison  with  the 
standard1  that,  although  much  nearer  right  than  before, 
it  is  still  lacking. 

On©  pound  of  cut  clover  hay  added  to  the  three 
previous  items  gives  a  ration*  that  is  quite  close  to  the 
demands  of  the  standard.  Adding  a  pound1  of  skim- 
mil'k  makes  this  laying  ration  almost  exactly  correspond 
to  the  standard. 

The  successive  steps  in  reckoning  this  ration  are 
given  together  as  follows: 

BECKONING  A  LAYING  RATION. 

Daily  Feeding  for  100  Lbs.  Dive  Weight  of  3-5  Ib.  Hens. 


Feed 

*i 

'oJi-J      >>-} 

^      :     « 

A 

\ 

P 

Carbohy- 
drates— Lbs. 

Fat-Lbs. 

aJ 

^1       1.2 
|g    1    *| 

Corn    . 

3 

2 

2.673 
1.790 

.045 
.036 

.2142 
.2046 

1.9836 
1.3S42 

.1491 
.0336 

4,716 
3,096 

1:10.8 
1:7.1 

Wheat    .  .  . 

Sum  
Beef  Scrap? 

5 
1 

4.463 

.9'87 

.081 
.153 

.4188 
.4850 

3.3678 

.1827 
.1520' 

7,812 
1,544 

1:9 
1:0.7 

Sum  

Clover  Hay 

6 

1 

5.450 
,847 

.234  1  .903813.3^78 
.06'2,|  .073>8:|  .3815 

.3347 
.0181 

9,356 
923 

1:4.56 
1:5.7 

Sum  
Sep.  Milk. 

7  16,297 
1  1  .094 

.296 
.007 

.9776 
.0301 

3.74931.3528 
.0510'|.0030 

10,27911:4.65 
164)1:2 

Total   ... 

S  16.3911.30,311.007713.80031.3558110,44311:4.57 

Standard   . 

|,5,50 

.30  (LOO     |3.75 

.35     1  10,300  1  1:4.6 

The  one  pound  of  skimnnilk  would  not  ordinarily  be 
used  in  this  laying  ration,  unless  the  poultryman  hap- 

PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      131 

pened  to  have  this  small  quantity  available  and  wished 
to  dispose  of  it  In  this  way.  If  he  had  a  large  amount 
of  skim-milk  as  a  by-product,  available  or  cheaply  ob- 
tainable, he  would  then  reckon  his  laying  ration  to 
use  more  of  this  protein  food  and  purchase  less  of  the 
costly  beef  scrap®. 

A     MOLTING    RATION. 

The  standard  for  laying  hens  answers  nicely  for 
molting  time  when  new  feathers  are  to  be  made  for 
renewing  the  plumage.  It  has  been  learned  by  exper- 
ience, however,  that  certain  kinds  of  feed<-stuffs  are 
especially  adapted  for  feeding  as  a  part  of  the  diet 
during  the  molting  season. 

Two  slight  changes  in  the  laying  ration  previously 
suggested,  will  maike  it  practically  perfect  for  feeding 
to  molting  fowls.  One-half  pound  of  linseed  meal  (pre- 
ferably old  process  "oil  meal")  is  substituted  for  one- 
half  pound  of  the  beef  scraps.  The  ration  will  then  con- 
sist of  3  Ibs.  corn,  2  l<bs,'  wheat,  1-2  Ib.  beef  scraps,  1-2 
Ib.  linseed  meal  and  green  grass,  clover  or  alfalfa  all 
the  fowls  care  for  in  place  of  the  1  Ib.  of  clover  hay. 
Some  poultrymen  prefer  to  feed  sunflower  seeds  or 
hemp  seeds  rather  than  linseed  meal  in  the  rations 
during  the  molting  period. 


FEEDING  TIME 


CHAPTER  VII 
Parasites  and    Diseases 

Parasites  both  external  and  internal,  are  detrimental 
to  poultry  and  poultry  profits  in  two  ways.  They  are 
the  direct  cause  of  annoyance,  suffering  and  loss,  and  by 
their  silent,  secret  work  they  prepare  the  way  for  debility 
and  disease,  which  too  often  results  in  the  death  of  the 
fowls  and  the  destruction  of  the  poultryman's  hones. 

EXTERNAL   PARASITES. 

Few  poultry  keepers  realize  the  extent  to  which 
external  parasites  prevail  upon  fowls  and  in  their  shel- 
ters. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  these  minute  pests  of  poul- 
try. Some  of  these  insects  cause  itching  of  the  skin,  the 
irritation  tending  to  uneasiness  and  discomfort  of  the 
fowls.  Others  injure  the  feathers,  either  in  the  quill  or 
the  web  and  some  of  these  may  cause  the  plumage  to 
fall  off.  Others  burrow  under  the  scales  of  the  shanks 
and  toes,  others  gnaw  the  skin  and  tissues  and  yet 
others  suck  the  blood  of  the  birds  through  the  skin. 

All  of  these  are  enemies  to  successful  poultry-keep- 
ing. 

Whenever  fowls  appear  to  be  out  of  condition  or  sick 
in  any  way  the  first  thing  to  ascertain  is  whether  their 
bodies  are  afflicted  with  parasites  of  any  kind  or  not. 

Precautions  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  presence, 
in  the  poultry  quarters,  of  any  and  all  of  these  pestifer- 
ous creatures. 

Cleanliness  of  the  fowls  and  of  their  surroundings  is 
a  wonderful  hindrance  to  their  presence.  The  poultry 
house  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  at  least  once,  or 
better,  two  or  more  times  annually. 

Spraying  the  interior  and  furnishings  of  the  hen 
house  with  a  two  per  cent,  solution  of  carboMc  acid 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      133 

(ninety-eight  parts  water,  two  parts  concentrated  car- 
bolic acid)  will  tend  to  keep  the  pests  at  a  distance.  An 
emulsion  for  spraying  may  be  made  as  follows: 

One  pound  of  hard  soap  is  cut  into  thin  shavings  and 
dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water.  Heat  gradually  until 
it  boils,  then  add  one  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  Force 
this  through  a  force-pump,  directing  the  nozzle  of  tne 
outlet  pipe  so  that  the  stream  strikes  back  into  the 
receptacle,  thus  churning  the  warm  liquid  until  it  be- 
comes a  creamy  mass.  On  cooling  the  mixture  becomes 
jelly-like.  This  is  kept  as  a  stock  emulsion.  For  use 
take  one  pint  of  the  stock,  add  fourteen  pints  of  water, 
mix  well  and  apply  thoroughly  with  a  spraying  pump  or 
a  brush. 

Some  poultrymen  use  crude  petroleum,  others  ordi- 
nary kerosene  for  applying  to  the  poultry  perches.  In 
either  case  the  addition  of  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  strong 
carbolic  acid  makes  the  liquid  more  effective. 

A  kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used  which  is  made  as 
follows:  One-half  pound  of  hard  soap  cut  into  thin 
shavings  is  dissolved  in  six  quarts  of  water,  brought  to 
boiling  and  removed  from  the  stove.  While  the  liquid 
is  yet  hot  add  eight  quarts  of  kerosene.  Churn  the  mix- 
ture with  a  spray-pump  until  it  changes  to  a  soft  butter- 
like  mass.  Use  one  part  of  this  stock  liquid  to  nine  parts 
of  water  for  applying  with  pump  or  brush. 

To  render  the  kerosene  emulsion  still  more  offensive 
to  the  vermin  add  one  part  of  concentrated  carbolic  acid 
to  ninety-nine  parts  of  the  liquid  before  spraying.  This 
is  both  economical  and  effective. 

Creolin  in  two  per  cent,  solution  is  excellent  for  use 
in  spraying. 

Many  of  the  prepared  liquid  lice  killers  on  the  mar- 
ket are  excellent  and  may  be  bought  in  any  quantity  de- 
sired. 

LICE. 

Body  lice  of  several  kinds  are  very  prevalent  on  the 
skin  of  fowls  where  the  parts  are  covered  by  fluffy  feath- 


134      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

ers.  These  irritating  inhabitants  cause  some  discomfort 
but  do  not  appear  to  destroy  the  live  tissues.  They  are 
said  to  subsist  on  the  wastes  of  the  skin  and  feathers. 

If  a  chicken  becomes  sickly  and  shows  a  dry,  scurvy 
skin,  lice  are  usually  found  swarming  upon  its  body. 
They  seem  to  increase  and  thrive  upon  birds  that  are 
stunted  in  growth,  rough  feathered,  unthrifty,  listless  or 
drooping. 

Diarrhea  frequently  accompanies  lousiness.  Mature 
fowls,  if  numerously  inhabited  by  these  parasites  are 
liable  to  stop  laying,  become  pale  of  comb  and  wattles 
lose  condition,  show  looseness  of  bowels  and  general 
debility. 

Lice  do  their  breathing  through  pores  or  openings  in 
the  sides  of  their  bodies.  They  may  be  destroyed  by 
filling  these  breathing  pores  with  fine  powder,  oil  or  suf- 
focating gases. 

Dusting: — Whether  fowls  wallow  in  dust  to  kill  the 
body  lice,  to  cleanse  their  feathers,  for  bodily  comfort 
or  pleasure,  or  for  all  of  these  purposes,  the  operation 
certainly  tends  to  discourage  the  presence  of  body  lice. 

A  dusting  place  should  be  provided  for  each  flock  in 
a  comfortable,  sheltered  spot,  where  the  sunshine  will 
make  it  doubly  attractive.  The  dust  need  not  be  exces- 
sively dry,  but  should  be  in  'such  condition  that  it  will 
readily  sift  through  the  feathers  to  the  skin  when  the 
fowls  wallow  and  roll  in  it. 

Fine  mellow  garden  soil  makes  a  good  dust  bath.  To 
it  may  be  added  finely  sifted  wood  ashes,  dry,  thoroughly 
slaked  lime,  tobacco  dust  and  flowers  of  sulphur,  ^ny 
fine  dust  will  answer  the  purpose  and  it  may  be  made 
pungent  and  repulsive  to  lice  by  sprinkling  occasionally 
with  a  two  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Male  fowls  frequently  fail  to  dust  themselves  suffici- 
ently to  keep  the  lice  away.  These  and  any  other  lousy 
rowis  may  be  dusted  by  hand.  Holding  the  bird  by  the 
legs  with  head  down  in  an  empty  barrel  or  box,  the  dry 
lice  powder  is  distributed  by  hand  or  sifted  from  a  dredg- 
ing box  among  the  feathers  and  worked  through  them  to 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      135 

the  skin.  Use  a  plenty  x>f  the  dry  dust,  especially  among 
the  fluffy  feathers.  Apply  thoroughly,  especially  about 
and  below  the  tail,  between  the,  legs,  under  the  wings 
and  around  the  neck. 

Tobacco  dust  is  excellent  to  use  on  grown  fowls. 

For  little  chicks  the  best  dust  is  fresh  Pyrethrum 
powder  (sold  at  apothecary  shops  also  as  Persian  Insect 
Powder) . 

An  apparatus  for  dusting  several  fowls  at  one  time 
is  sold  on  the  market.  It  is  named  the  "Lightning  Lice 
Killer"  and  consists  of  a  hollow,  horizontal,  cloth-cov- 
ered cylinder  which  is  revolved  by  a  handle.  The  lousy 
fowls  and  the  dust  are  placed  in  the  cylinder,  which  is 
then  given  a  few  turns,  causing  the  birds'  feathers  to 
become  well  filled  with  the  lice  powder.  The  cylinder  is 
then  quickly  opened  and  the  fowls  set  free.  The  only 
objection  to  this  method  is  the  discomfort  to  the  fowls 
resulting  from  the  pungent  powder  getting  into  their 
eyes,  nostrils,  and  throats.  A  mild  powder  such  as  Py- 
rethrum will,  however,  not  cause  serious  distress  to  the 
fowls. 

Dipping:—  Fowls  may  be  entirely  freed  from  insects 
by  dipping. 

The  operation  should  be  done  on  a  warm  day  or  in  a 
warm  room  and  the  fowls  should  be  allowed  to  dry  off 
In  very  comfortable  quarters. 

Any  good,  effective  sheep  dip  or  liquid  lice  killer  will 
answer  the  purpose.  Creolin  is  suitable,  using  five 
ounces  to  eight  quarts  of  water.  The  bath  is  warmed  to 
105  or  110  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

The  bird,  held  by  the  wings  and  the  head,  is  immers- 
ed all  except  the  head,  in  a  bucket  containing  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  diluted  dip  to  cover  the  body.  For  one 
minute  the  fowl  is  moved  up  and  down  and  swayed  in 
the  liquid,  then  lifted  and  stood  upon  a  board  that  drains 
into  the  bucket.  The  top  of  the  fowl's  head  is  wet  with 
the  dip,  avoiding  the  eyes.  The  excess  of  the  dip  is 
pressed  out  of  the  plumage  by  a  cloth  or  sponge.  The 


136      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

bird  is  then  placed  in  a  coop  in  the  sunshine  or  near 
artificial  heat  to  dry  off. 

This  method  is  thorough  even  if  somewhat  trouble- 
some. 

Very  good  results  usually  follow  the  moderate  appli- 
cation of  the  liquid  on  the  skin  under  the  fluffy  feathers 
by  means  of  an  oil  dropper.  Machine  oil  used  in  this  way 
spreads  freely  over  the  skin  and  is  very  effective. 

Fumigating: — The  fumes  of  bisulfid  of  carbon  or 
from  liquid  lice  killer  containing  this  fluid  are  deadly  to 
insects,  but  rather  difficult  and  somwhat  dangerous  to 
effectively  apply. 

Carbon  bisulfid  can  be  bought  in  liquid  form.  If  left 
open  to  the  air  it  quickly  volatilizes,  forming  an  odor- 
ous, inflammable  gas.  It  should  not  be  kept  or  used 
near  a  lighted  lamp,  or  fire  in  any  form. 

It  is  possible  to  treat  several  fowls  at  3,  time  in  a 
large  box.  The  liquid  is  applied  to  the  inner  sides  of 
the  box,  the  fowls  are  placed  therein  and  the  top  is 
partly  closed,  but  kept  open  sufficiently  to  prevent  suf- 
focating the  fowls.  Ten  minutes  of  this  treatment 
should  annihilate  the  parasites  on  the  fowls  that  are  not 
too  close  feathered. 

Simply  painting  the  perches  of  the  hen  house,  just 
before  roosting  time,  with  liquid  lice  killer  or  with  petro- 
leum, to  which  has  been  added  five  per  cent,  of  carbon 
bisulfid,  helps  to  banish  the  parasites. 

MITES. 

When  not  full  of  blood,  which  they  have  robbed  from 
the  hen,  the  insects  commonly  called  mites  appear  yel- 
lowish, whitish  or  almost  transparent.  It  is  oftentimes 
difficult  to  detect  the  minute,  colorless  creatures  which 
hide  by  day  in  cracks  and  crannies  of  the  perches  or  at 
the  sides  of  the  roosting  place.  These  parasites  are  only 
about  one-fortieth  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  often 
cluster  in  colonies  and  where  they  congregate  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  mealy  dust  and  webs  may 
usually  be  found. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      137 

They  pasture  on  the,  bodies  of  the  fowls  at  night  or 
when  the  birds  are  on  the  nests  laying  or  sitting.  When 
they  have  sucked  supplies  of  blood  through  the  skin  of 


WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 
Courtesy  H.  E.  Mattocks 

the  fowl  they  become  red  in  color  and  are  often  called 
"red  spiders."  After  getting  their  fill  of  good  bird's 
blood  these  parasites  retreat  to  their  hiding  places. 

In  sultry  summer  weather,  if  not  hindered,  they  pro- 


138      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

pagate  and  swarm  by  millions.  When  a  hen  house  be- 
comes thus  infested  the  mites  may  remain  upon  the  fowls 
even  in  the  day  time,  especially  if  the  birds  are  inactive 
or  stay  upon  the  perches.  Mites  will  sometimes  so  afflict 
sitting  hens  as  to  drive  them  from  their  nests,  or  if  the 
hens  stick  to  their  nests  they  may  die  from  exhaustion 
due  to  loss  of  blood. 

Where  the  mites  become  so  numerous  that  they 
swarm  upon  the  ceiling  or  under  side  of  the  house  roof  it 
is  easy  for  them  to  drop  upon  the  luckless  hen  or  person 
who  enters  the  infested  place. 

These  parasites  do  not  breathe  through  pores  in  their 
sides  like  lice  but  the  precautions  suggested  for  pre- 
venting lousiness  will  tend  to  discourage  the  presence  of 
mites. 

If  they  are  found  on  the  fowls,  dipping  in  liquid  lice 
killer  may  be  necessary.  Then  keep  the  fowls  away 
from  the  infested  quarters  until  the  mites  are  destroyed 
therein. 

All  the  furnishings  of  a  hen  house  should  be  readily 
removable.  The  nest-boxes  may  be  freed  from  lice  ver- 
min by  soaking  them  in  a  barrel  or  tub  or  tank  filled 
with  sheep  dip,  or  two  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution. 
The  perches  may  be  painted  with  the  liquid.  Any  other 
furniture  should  be  sprayed  or  washed  thoroughly  with 
the  liquid. 

If  any  mites  find  hiding  places  where  the  carbolic 
acid  spray  cannot  reach  them,  they  and  their  crannies 
should  be  sealed  up  by  painting  with  hot  tar. 

If  the  house  can  be  closed  tightly  it  may  be  fumigat- 
ed by  burning  brimstone,  or  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 
The  simplest  plan  is  to  use  flowers  of  sulfur  and  fumi- 
gate for  several  hours. 

The  fine  powdered  sulfur  is  placed  in  a  metallic  ba- 
sin on  top  of  a  coal  hod  or  old  pail.  Alcohol  is  added  to 
the  sulfur  so  that  it  can  be  easily  lighted.  Having  tight- 
ly closed  the  house  the  sulfur  is  set  on  fire  and  allowed 
to  burn  continuously  for  hours.  One  pound  of  sulfur 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  hen  house  that  is  ten  feet  by 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      139 

twelve  feet  at  the  sills.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
all  danger  of  fire  consuming  the  house. 

The  brimstone  fumes  appear  to  be  especially  effec- 
tive following  the  spraying  of  the  interior  walls  of  the 
house. 

Nest  bugs,  or  bed  bugs  sometimes  invade  the  hen 
house  and  afflict  the  fowls. 

For  these  pests,  as  well  as  for  the  mites,  or  any 
other  insect  enemies,  fumigation  by  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas  is  very  effective,  but  more  expensive  than  brimstone. 
The  gas  is  fatal  to  human  life  if  taken  into  the  lungs, 
hence  careful  management  is  necessary. 

The  chemicals  used  consist  of  the  following,  for  each 
hundred  cubic  feet  of  interior  space:  1  oz.  Potassium 
Cyanide  (99  per  cent),  11-2  ozs.  Commercial  Sulfuric 
Acid  (1.83  specific  gravity)  and  21-4  ozs.  water.  The 
water  is  placed  in  a  porcelain-lined  basin  or  crockery- 
ware  bowl  and  the  acid  is  added  drop  by  drop,  gradu- 
ally mixing  it  with  the  water  to  avoid  danger  of  spatter- 
ing the  skin  or  clothing  of  the  operator.  If  the  acid  is 
added  all  at  once  violent  boiling  and  spattering  is  liable 
to  occur. 

The  Potassium  Cyanide  is  broken  into  small  frag- 
ments, placed  in  a  loose  paper  bag  and  suspended  over 
the  bowl  of  acid  and  water  by  a  string  which  leads  to 
the  outside  of  the  room  or  house. 

The  window's  and  doors  are  closely  shut  and  all 
apertures,  large  or  small,  stopped  up.  When  ready  the 
bag  of  Cyanide  is  dropped  into  the  bowl  of  liquid  by  re- 
leasing the  attached  string  from  the  outside. 

Let  the  fumes  do  their  work  for  fully  an  hour.  Open 
the  doors  and  windows  and  air  out  well  before  entering 
the  place. 

Fleas,  ticks,  gnats  and  mosquitoes  may  bring  dis- 
comfort to  fowls,  especially  in  tropical  climates  or  very 
hot  weather. 

Spraying  the  house  and  furnishings  freely  and  fre- 


140      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

quently  with  two  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution  tends  to 
keep  away  all  injurious  insects. 

Ticks  and  jigger  fleas  that  attach  themselves  to  the 
comb  and  wattles  or  skin  of  fowl  may  be  smeared  with 
carbolated  vaseline  to  loosen  their  grip  and  close  their 
careers.  The  kerosene  or  carbolic  emulsion  already  de- 
scribed will  answer  the  same  purpose. 

DEPLUMING   MITES. 

A  minute  insect  sometimes  lives  on  the  fowl  at  the 
bases  of  the  quills  of  the  feathers  and  by  its  operations 
weakens  the  plumage.  If  these  mites  are  numerous  their 
attacks  may  eventually  cause  the  feathers  to  break  off 
oy  fall  away. 

The  neck  and  head  of  the  fowl  may  thus  become 
bare.  The  exposed  skin  is  soft  and  smooth  and  may  have 
a  pinkish  tint.  Feathers  bordering  on  the  bare  spots 
come  out  easily  and  at  the  bases  of  their  quills  the  de- 
pluming mites  may  be  detected  by  the  aid  of  a  magnify- 
ing lense  of  low  power. 

Treatment  consists  in  simply  rubbing  carbolated 
vaseline  into  the  skin,  daily,  where  the  insects  are  work- 
ing. 

SCABBY    LEGS. 

The  form  of  scabies  which  affects  the  legs  and  toes 
of  fowls  is  due  to  the  burrowing  of  a  kind  of  mite  under 
the  scales.  The  shanks  assume  an  uneven  appearance 
and  become  crusted  with  a  mealy  substance.  The  mites 
which  cause  this  disorder  may  pass  from  one  fowl  to 
another  and  thus  carry  the  trouble  through  a  flock. 

To  destroy  the  insects  stand  the  fowl  in  a  pail  of 
warm,  soapy  water  long  enough  to  soften  the  scales. 
Remove  any  scates  that  become  loosened  and  burn  the 
same  with  any  adhering  crusts  or  dust.  Clean  the  legs 
and  toes,  then  rub  gently  but  thoroughly  with  carbolated 
vaseline.  Treat  daily  with  the  ointment  until  cured. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      141 
INTERNAL  PARASITES. 

GAPE-WOBMS 

When  little  chickens  stand  about  and  frequently 
gasp  for  breath  there  is  usually  some  trouble  in  the 
wind-pipe  or  lungs. 

Gaping  is  occasionally  a  sign  of  bronchitis,  but  far 
more  frequently  it  is  due  to  the  presence  of  reddish 
worms,  which  lodge  in  the  wind-pipe.  These  parasites 
attach  themselves  to  the  inner  lining  of  the  trachea,  suck 
blood  from  the  tissues  and  cause  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane. 

In  the  case  of  the  gape-worm  both  sexes  are  connec- 
ted so  that  they  appear  as  one  worm.  The  mature  female 
is  about  one-half  inch  long,  the  male  one-fifth  inch  in 
length.  The  male  is  attached  to  the  female  at  about  the 
distance  of  his  own  length  from  one  end  of  the  female 
so  that  the  combination  presents  a  forked  appearance. 

When  a  number  of  these  worms  get  into  the  wind- 
pipe and  become  filled  with  blood  the  breathing  is  diffi- 
cult and  gaping  is  a  natural  result. 

Weak  chicks  often  succumb  to  the  attacks  of  these 
parasites.  Strong  chicks  may  overcome  the  disorder. 

This  trouble  is  particularly  prevalent  in  spring  time 
in  warm  climates.  The  chicks  appear  to  get  the  worms 
or  the  eggs  that  produce  them  from  the  ground  after  the 
season  of  frozen  ground  and  frosts  is  passed. 

Gape-worms  have  been  reported  to  have  been  found 
in  earth-worms. 

If  these  parasites  are  present  on  the  premises  the 
land  should  be  deeply  plowed  or  the  chickens  raised  on 
new  ground  not  infested  with  gape-worms. 

Actual  cases  of  chicks  afflicted  with  gape- worms 
may,  if  the  birds  are  strong,  be  treated  with  lime  dust 
The  chicks  are  placed  in  a  box,  over  which  burlap  or 
cheese  cloth  is  fastened.  Fine,  dry,  air-slaked  lime  is 
sprinkled  upon  the  cloth  and  the  chicks  breathe  the  dust. 
The  gape-worms  loosen  their  hold  in  the  wind-pipe  and 
the  hope  of  relief  then  depends  upon  the  success  of  the 


142      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

chick  in  coughing  them  up  and  out.  Destroy  by  burning 
all  worms  thus  expelled  and  any  chicks  that  die  with 
gape-worms  in  them. 

Extracting  the  worms  by  a  horse  hair  loop  is  prac- 
ticed. 

The  premises  may  be  freed  from  these  parasites  if 
the  poultryman  will  burn  every  chicken  that  shows 
symptoms  of  the  disorder.  Indications  other  than  the 
frequent  gaping  are  contracted  neck,  closing  eye-lids, 
shaking  of  the  head,  drooping  wings  and  staggering 
gait. 

ROUND   WORMS. 

Cylindrical,  smooth  worms,  tapering  to  each  end, 
pointed  in  front  and  blunt  in  rear,  often  inhabit  the 
intestines  of  poultry.  Mature  worms  may  measure  five 
inches  in  length. 

These  worms  take  nourishment  that  should  be  used 
for  the  replenishing  of  the  blood  of  the  fowl  and  when 
present  in  large  numbers  they  interfere  with  the  digest- 
ive processes.  They  may  cause  diarrhea  or  stoppage. 

To  drive  them  out  give  the  fowl  three  teaspoonfuls 
of  oil  of  turpentire  or  two  grains  of  santonine,  one  hour 
before  breakfast.  Follow  three  hours  later  with  a  dose 
of  twenty  grains  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  tablespoonful  of 
water,  or  use  castor  oil  one  teaspoonful  in  place  of  the 
salts. 

TAPE-WORMS. 

Tape-worms  also  inhabit  the  intestines  of  fowls. 
They  are  of  several  varieties,  differing  in  size,  but  form- 
ed of  short,  flat  sections,  which  may  break  apart  at  the 
joints.  When  these  parts  are  discovered  in  the  drop- 
pings, or  when  a  fowl  loses  appetite,  becomes  thin  of 
flesh,  weakened,  and  the  feathers  lose  their  lustre,  it  is 
well  to  give  a  dose  of  male  fern,  one  dram  of  the  powder- 
ed form  or  thirty  drops  of  the  liquid  extract  before  feed- 
ing at  morning  and  at  evening.  Or  give  Areca  nut,  four 
to  five  grains  (about  three-fourths  of  a  teaspoonful  of 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      143 

the  powdered  nut).  Follow  in  three  hours  with  twenty 
grains  of  Epsom  salts' or  a  teaspoonful  of  Castor  oil. 

If  a  flock  is  suspected  to  be  troubled  with  tape- 
worms, it  may  have  for  breakfast  a  mash  in  which 
is  mixed  one  teaspoonful  of  powdered  pomegranate  root 
bark  for  each  fifty  fowls. 

To  prevent  or  expel  intestinal  worms  it  is  an  excel- 
lent plan  to  feed  occasionally  onions  or  garlic.  If  the 
fowls  will  not  eat  these  readily,  they  may  be  chopped 
fine,  tops  and  all,  and  mixed  in  a  mash  for  feeding  in 
the  morning  when  the  fowls  are  hungry. 

PARASITES    IN   THE   OVIDUCT. 

Two  parasites,  the  common  round  worm  already  de- 
scribed and  a  small  fluke,  have  been  reported  found  in 
the  white  of  eggs. 

It  is  supposed  that  these  organisms  entered  the  ovi- 
duct from  the  cloaca  and  were  enclosed  in  the  albumen 
of  the  egg  while  the  latter  was  forming  in  the  oviduct. 

DISEASES. 

Whatever  may  prepare  the  way  for  sickness  among 
fowls,  the  actual  active  cause  of  developing  disease  is  a 
germ  in  each  case. 

Before  the  "seeds  of  sickness"  will  sprout,  the  "soil" 
must  be  in  a  condition  favorable  to  development  and 
growth  of  the  "seeds."  The  most  favorable  and  inviting 
conditions  for  the  development  of  disease  are  unclean- 
liness  and  the  presence  of  parasites. 

Diseases  are  not  prevalent  among  wild  fowl. 

Probably  all  of  the  diseases  of  poultry  are  the  result 
of  man's  mistakes  in  the  domestication  and  care  of  the 
fowls.  The  birds  kept  in  confined  quarters,  with  no 
escape  from  unnatural  and  unhealthy  conditions,  suc- 
cumb to  the  attacks  of  disease. 

Carelessness,  neglect  and  ignorance  prepare  the  seed- 
bed and  the  germs  of  disease  conveyed  by  air,  dust, 
water,  food,  clothing,  etc.,  find  the  conditions  right  ior 
their  development  and  sickness  results. 


144      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

The  germs  of  disease  are  microscopic  organisms 
which  multiply  in  multitudes  when  fostered  by  decom- 
posing organic  matter,  rotting  mature,  stagnant  water 
pools,  foul  confined  air  and  dark,  damp,  confined  places. 

Sanitation  does  away  with  all  these  unhealthy  condi- 
tions, but  even  then  there  is  danger  if  the  poultryman 
purchases  fowls  supposed  to  be  all  right,  but  actually 
weak  or  diseased  because  bred  or  raised  under  evil  con- 
ditions. 

PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE. 

The  reasonable,  sensible,  profitable  plan  relative  to 
poultry  diseases  is  to  prevent  them. 

First  start  with  healthy  stock.  It  is  the  part  of  wis- 
dom to  know  the  poultryman  who  furnishes  the  founda- 
tion stock,  to  know  the  history  and  record  of  the  flock 
from  which  the  fowls  are  taken,  and  to  inspect  the 
quarters  in  which  the  birds  have  been  bred  and  raised. 

If  this  is  not  possible,  the  purchaser  may  at  least  buy 
his  birds  of  a  reliable  breeder  and  on  a  guaranty  of 
healthfulness,  with  the  privilege  of  returning  the  stock 
immediately,  transportation  charges  paid,  if  on  arrival 
the  fowls  appear  unhealthy  or  unsatisfactory. 

If  accepted,  the  birds  should  next  be  kept  in  quaran- 
tine for  two  weeks.  A  clean  hen  house  will  be  suitable 
for  this  purpose  and  while  the  birds  are  thus  confined 
they  should  be  examined  to  see  if  they  are  free  from 
lice. 

The  permanent  quarters  should  be  fully  prepared 
before  the  fowls  are  placed  in  them.  If  the  house  is  a  new 
one  it  should  be  thoroughly  dried  out.  If  an  old  one, 
previously  used  for  poultry,  it  should  have  been  cleaned 
out,  freed  from  parasites,  disinfected  to  destroy  disease 
germs,  and  long  opened  to  the  air  and  sunshine.  The 
quarters  must  be  supplied  with  ample  means  of  ventila- 
tion without  danger  to  the  fowls  from  direct  drafts  of 
air. 

The  water  fountains  and  other  furnishings  should  be 
clean  and  kept  clean. 

The  floor,  if  of  soil,  should  be  renewed  to  freshen  it. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      145 

The  yards  should  be  plowed  or  harrowed.  There  is 
wonderful  power  in  freshly  turned  soil  to  absorb  ana 
banish  foulness,  parasites  and  disease  germs.  Tne 
ground  of  the  house  and  runs  should  have  good  natural 
drainage. 

Any  garbage,  vegetable  refuse,  dead  animals  or  filth 
on  the  place  should  be  promptly  buried  deep  in  the  soil. 

The  feeding  of  the  fowls  should  be  sanitary  and  sen- 
sible, according  to  the  directions  and  suggestions  of  the 
previous  chapter.  Unbalanced  rations  tend  to  overwork 
certain  of  the  organs  of  digestion  and  render  them  liable 
to  take  disease. 

Constant  watchfulness  of  the  flock  will  enable  the 
poultry  keeper  to  detect  any  symptoms  of  indisposition 
among  his  fowls.  Birds  which  show  even  slight  signs  of 
sickness  should  be  promptly  removed  from  the  flock 
and  kept  apart  until  they  fully  recover  condition. 

TREATMENT  OF  DISEASES. 

If  a  fowl  actually  becomes  sick  there  is  usually  little 
to  be  gained  by  "doctoring"  the  creature.  It  is  a  safe 
rule  never  to  breed  from  a  bird  that  has  been  sick  and 
there  is  rarely  any  profit  gained  from  a  fowl  that  has 
suffered  serious  sickness.  Some  poultrymen,  instead  of 
heroically  beheading  and  burying  a  sick  fowl,  prefer  to 
try  medical  treatment. 

In  seeking  to  cure  poultry  disease,  the  first  step  is  to 
diagnose  the  case,  then  ascertain  the  cause,  next  remove 
or  counteract  the  conditions  leading  to  the  disease  and 
finally  attempt  to  remedy  the  damage  done  by  the 
disease. 

CLINICAL   EQUIPMENT. 

The  poultry  physician  will  not  require  a  large  assort- 
ment of  instruments  but  should  have  at  hand  a  few  sim- 
ple means  for  his  purpose. 

A  pocket  knife  with  a  sharp,  thin  blade  is  a  prime 
requisite. 


146      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY*  CULTURE 

A  silver  plated  teaspoon  and  a  tablespoon  are  neces- 
sary. 

A  pair  of  small  forceps  will  come  handy. 

A  medicine  dropper  with  rubber  bulb  is  useful  in 
measuring  and  giving  liquids. 

A  glass  tube,  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil,  is  useful  in 
blowing  powder  into  the  throat 

An  atomizer  will  be  needed  for  light  spraying. 

A  small  hand  syringe  will  aid  in  giving  injections. 

A  catheter,  or  rubber  tube  about  one-half  inch  in 
diameter,  and  a  foot  in  length  will  be  helpful  in  carry- 
ing doses  to  the  crop. 

A  small  glass  funnel  to  fit  into  one  end  of  the  cath- 
eter completes  this  appliance. 

A  spraying  pump  is  necessary  in  applying  liquid  dis- 
infectants. 

A  medicine  case  containing  a  supply  of  the  principal 
rtrugs  used  for  fowls  will  be  convenient. 

DIAGNOSIS    AND    DIRECTIONS    FOB    TREATMENT. 

An  alphabetical  list  of  the  more  or  less  prevalent  dis- 
eases of  poultry  together  with  brief  directions  for  treat- 
ment follows: 

Abdominal  Dropsy — Abdomen  distended  with  liquid, 
hangs  down,  is  soft  and  fluctuating.  The  fowl  becomes 
listless,  feeble,  loses  appetite,  com'b  and  wattles  lose 
color.  Probably  fed  too  much  corn  or  excess  of  starchy 
foods.  Practically  incurable.  Should  have  been  killed 
and  dressed  before  reaching  this  stage.  Some  relief  may 
follow  daily  doses  of  one  grain  of  iodide  of  potassium 
or  iodide  of  iron. 

Anemia — Wasting  and  weakness,  poor  blood  or  pov- 
erty of  blood  due  to  lack  of  proper  nutriment  in  the  ra- 
tions or  to  incomplete  oxidizing  of  the  blood.  Pale  comb 
and  wattles.  Give  wholesome,  appetizing,  balanced  ra- 
tions. Keep  fowl  free  from  parasites.  House  such  birds 
in  a  clean,  comfortable,  well  ventilated,  sun-lighted  pen 
and  induce  exercise  by  scattering  small  grain  in  straw 
litter.  A  tonic  may  be  given.  Mix  ten  drops  of  tincture 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      147 

of  ferric  chloride  with  one  teaspoonful  of  gylcerine  and 
add  to  one  i/mt  of  water.  This  is  sufficient  for  twenty 
fowls. 

Apoplexy — Bursting  of  blood  vessel  in  the  brain, 
prostrates  the  fowl,  which  is  found  insensible  or  dead, 
lying  on  its  side.  Comb  and  wattles  purple.  Occurs 
especially  in  overfat  fowls  when  running  or  laying. 
Gorging  with  food  or  becoming  overheated  in  sultry 
weather  may  bring  on  an  attack.  Avoid  excess  in  feed- 
ing, especially  of  fatty  and  starchy  foods. 

Asthenia — Often  termed  "going  light,"  wasting  of 
muscles  due  to  lack  of  food,  unbalanced  rations,  digest- 
ive disorders,  external  or  internal  parasites,  tuberculosis, 
blood  poisoning.  Correct  the  conditions  if  possible.  Give 
twice  daily,  nitrate  of  'bismuth,  three  groins,  powdered 
cinnamon  or  cloves,  one  grain;  powdered  willow  char- 
coal, three  grains,  mixed  in  the  mash  feed  or  made  into 
pills  with  water  and  flour. 

To  disinfect  the  intestines  napthol,  bethol  or  salicy- 
late  of  bismuth  may  be  given  in  one-half  grain  doses 
every  four  hours. 

If  the  wasting  is  checked  give  a  tonic  of  thirty 
grains  each  of  powdered  fennel,  anise,  one  dram  each  of 
coriander  and  cinchona,  fifteen  grains  of  powdered  sul- 
fate  of  iron,  all  well  mingled  and  added  to  the  mash 
feed  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  grains  daily.  The 
mash  may  be  made  of  wheat  middlings,  corn  meal  and 
rice  flour,  mixed  with  boiled  milk,  adding  finely  chop- 
ped boiled  egg  or  boiled  beef. 

Atrophy  of  the  Liver — Wasting  of  the  liver,  caused  by 
chronic  inflammation,  may  result  in  stupor  or  convul- 
sions. 

Prevent  by  feeding  green  food,  balanced  rations,  and 
scattering  small  grains  in  litter  to  induce  exercise. 

Give  fowl  one-half  grain  calomel  followed  by  twenty- 
grains  Epsom  salts  in  a  tablespoonful  of  water. 

After  ten  hours  give  two  grains  bicarbonate  soda. 

A  one  grain  dose  daily  of  napthol  or  benzo-napthol 
will  tend  to  disinfect  the  intestinal  tract. 


148      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      149 

Break  Down — The  muscles  of  the  abdomen  become 
weakened  because  of-  overfatness,  fatty  degeneration  or 
disordered  oviduct  and  the  abdomen  hangs  down  behind. 
If  otherwise  healthy  kill  and  use  for  the  table.  Avoid 
by  feeding  less  fatty  or  starchy  food,  especially  Indian 
corn. 

Broken  Bone — Unless  extremely  valuable  a  fowl  hav- 
ing a  broken  leg  or  wing  may  best  be  used  for  the  table. 

Bronchitis — Inflammation  of  the  bronchial  tubes  may 
result  from  catching  cold  when  exposed  to  chilly,  damp, 
foul  atmosphere,  drafts  or  irritating  dust.  Whistling, 
rattling  in  the  throat,  gapiixg  and  excessive  thirst  are 
symptoms.  In  the  first  stages  give  tincture  of  aconite 
in  one  drop  doses  every  five  hours  or  give  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, ten  drops,  in  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  every 
five  hours  until  relieved.  If  purging  follows  discontinue 
the  oil.  Syrup  of  ipecac  may  be  given  to  relieve  difliculty 
in  respiration.  Flaxseed  tea  is  excellent  to  relieve  the 
trouble  and  is  also  nourishing. 

Bumble  Foot — Cushion  of  foot  has  a  corn  and  develops 
an  abscess.  If  neglected  may  extend  to  joints  of  leg 
and  then  becomes  incurable.  Caused  by  imbedded  peb- 
ble, narrow  perches,  jumping  from  high  perches  to  hard 
floor.  Out  abscess  and  empty  pus.  Wash  out  with  one 
per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution.  Anoint  daily  with  car- 
bolated  vaseline  until  well. 

Canker— White,  gray  or  yellow  patches  grow  on  the 
lining  membranes  of  the  mouth  or  throat,  swallowing 
painful.  Inducing  conditions  are  colds,  catarrh,  roup, 
exposure  to  chilling  winds,  drafts  and  fllthiness.  Keep 
the  bird  away  from  such  conditions. 

Canker  spots  may  be  treated  by  gently  blowing  dry 
powdered  chlorate  of  potash  through  a  glass  tube  or  a 
straw  upon  them.  Swabbing  with  peroxide  of  Hydrogen 
twice  daily  ig  beneficial.  Calcium  sulfid,  one  grain, 
three  times  a  day  may  be  given  in  a  bread  pellet.  Feeu 
very  nourishing  soft  food,  such  as  raw  eggs,  or  bread 
soaked  in  milk  or  beef  tea. 

Catarrh — Mucous  secretions  form  and  collect  in  the 


150      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

eyes,  nostrils  and  mouth.  The  bird  'becomes  drowsy, 
loses  appetite,  shows  roughness  of  feathers,  sneezes  or 
wh'eezes.  May  follow  catching  cold  or  exposure  to  clamp, 
chilly  conditions,  foul  air,  filtny  food  or  water,  and  the 
attacks  of  parasites. 

Place  the  patient  in  comfortable  quarters  away  from 
the  evil  conditions  just  mentioned.  Sunshine  and  pure 
air  are  correctives.  Raw  eggs  or  bread  softened  with 
milk  and  fresh  green  food  will  nourish  and  help  the 
fowl. 

If  there  is  swelling  of  the  parts  of  the  head  anoint 
with  carbolated  vaseline.  Inject  into  the  mouth  and 
nostrils  by  the  atomizer,  several  times  daily,  a  solution 
made  of  extract  of  witch  hazel,  four  tablespoonfuls, 
water  two  tablespoonfuls  and  carbolic  acid  three  drops. 

Choking — There  is  shaking  of  the  head,  straining  and 
twisting  of  the  neck.  If  a  piece  of  bone  or  other  hard 
substance  obstructs  the  throat  carefully  locate  it  and 
seek  to  work  it  out  through  the  mouth  'by  manipulation 
with  the  fingers  on  the  outside  of  the  neck.  A  little  sweet 
oil  inside  the  throat  may  help  matters  tout  avoid  stop- 
ping up  the  windpipe.  If  tne  obstruction  can  be  seen  in 
the  throat  it  may  perhaps  be  siezed  and  withdrawn  by 
means  of  the  forceps  or  toy  the  fingers. 

Cholera — Contagious  cholera  of  poultry  is  a  very  rare 
disease  and  is  due  to  a  specific  cholera  germ.  The 
symptoms  include  looseness  of  the  bowels,  thin  yellow- 
ish or  greenish  discharges,  roughened  plumage,  drooped 
iv ings,  contracted  neck,  drowsiness,  excessive  thirst,  dis- 
tended crop,  pale  comb  and  wattles,  weakness.  In  the 
rapid  form  there  is  extreme  exhaustion  and  death  ensues 
within  atoout  two  days  after  being  attacked. 

There  is  a  chronic  form  which  may  continue  several 
weeks. 

Kill  and  burn  the  birds.  Spray  the  surroundings,  in- 
cluding the  ground  of  the  runs,  with  five  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid.  Keep  the  liquid  well  stirred  while 
spraying. 

Colds— There  is  inflammation  of  the  throat,  nostrils 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      151 


and  eyes,  thin  watery  discharges  from  these  parts,  "often- 
times frothin<ess  in  the  eyes,  sneezing  and  shaking  of  the 
head. 

Exposure  to  damp,  chilly,  stagnant  conditions  causes 
the  birds  to  "catch  cold"  and  this  may,  if  not  checked, 
lead  on  to  catarrh,  canker,  bronchitis,  pneumonia  or 
roup. 

Dry,  comfortable,  sunny,  well  ventilated  quarters,  act- 
ive scratching  for  a  part  of  their  rations,  pure  food  and 
water,  green  food  to  keep  the  bowels  in  order  and  free- 
dom from  parasites  all  tend  to  prevent  colds. 

Mix  together  one  tablespoonf  ul  each  of  black  pepper, 
ginger,  mustard  and  flour,  add  lard  enough  so  that  the 
mixture  can  be  formed  into  pellets  of  the  right  size  to  be 
taken  by  a  fowl. 

Keep  a  supply  of  these  pellets  in  a  closed  glass  jar.  If 
a  fowl  shows  running  at  the  nostrils  or  eyes  or  frothy 
discharges  in  one  or  both  eyes,  becomes  inactive  or  be- 
gins sneezing,  give  two  or  three  pellets  at  evening  to 
ward  off  the  cold  or  to  check  its  development. 

Oftentimes  when  there  is  a  slight  watery  discharge 
from  the  nostrils  it  will  become  evident  -by  the  dust 
collecting  on  it  and  giving  the  base  of  the  nostrils  a  da~k 
appearance.  Watchfulness  and  prompt  treatment  will 
often  save  the  fowls  from  the  diseases  which-  readily 
follow  colds  in  the  head. 

Congestion  of  the  Liver — Excessive  fatness,  sluggish- 
ness and  inactivity  are  accompaniments  of  liver  conges- 
tion. A  post-mortem  examination  shows  the  liver  to  be 
enlarged,  gorged  and  congested. 

Overfeeding,  unbalanced  starchy  or  fatty  rations,  es- 
pecially an  abundant  or  exclusive  corn  diet,  and  close 
confinement,  with  little  or  no  exercise,  all  tend  to  dis- 
orders of  the  liver.  Correct  these  conditions  aal  see 
that  the  fowls  are  free  from  parasites. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs — The  multitudinous  blood 
vessels  of  the  lungs  become  gorged  with  Wood,  resulting 
in  partial  asphyxiation  by  preventing  the  air  entering 
the  lungs  because  of  the  contracted  air  tubes  or  causing 


152      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


rupture  of  the  vessels  and  filling  of  the  air  tubes  with 
blood. 

Fowls  that  are  exceedingly  fat  may  have  too  abun- 
dant rich,  thick  blood  in  their  veins  and  if  excited  to 
violent  movement  rupture  of  a  blood  vessel  in  the  lungs 
may  occur.  In  such  case  there  is  rapid,  laborious  breath- 
ing, succeeded  by  stupor  and  change  of  color  of  the 
comb  and  wattles  to  purplish  or  bluish  hue.  Death 
comes  suddenly. 

Avoid  overfeeding  the  rest  of  the  flock,  include  am- 
ple fresh  green  food  in  the  rations,  compel  the  birds  to 
scratch  for  some  of  their  food  and  protect  them  from 
all  the  evil  conditions  which  tend  to  make  them  catch 
cold. 

Constipation — If  stoppage  occurs  from  obstruction  of 
the  bowels  or  vent,  remove  any  excrement  that  has  at- 
tached to  the  feathers  about  the  vent,  softening  the 
same  with  warm  water  or  oil  if  necessary  to  loosen  Its 
hold. 

Give  twenty  grains  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  tablespoonful 
of  water  or  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  as  a  dose  for  an 
adult  fowl.  Feed  bread  soaked  in  milk,  supply  fresh 
green  food  and  compel  the  fowls  to  exercise. 

Consumption — This  is  a  lung  trouble  that  may  be  ac- 
companied by  fetid  diarrhea.  Egg  production  ceases, 
the  body  gets  thin  ("going  light")  the  comib,  wattles 
and  skin  become  pale  and  there  is  weakness.  The  diges- 
tion is  impaired,  respiration  may  be  rasping. 

Destroy  the  fowls  and  disinfect  the  premises. 

Corns — The  sole  of  the  foot  becomes  hardened  from 
the  same  causes  that  produce  Bumible  Foot.  Remove  the 
irritating  conditions,  pare  down  the  thickened  cuticle 
and  apply  tincture  of  iodine  daily  until  the  inflammation 
is  removed. 

Crop  Bound — Obstruction  or  impaction  of  the  crop 
may  result  from  eating  long,  wilted  grass,  leathers, 
strings  or  other  indigestible  articles  or  from  gorging 
with  food. 

Give  a  teaspoonful  of  sweet  oil,  then  manipulate  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      153 

crop  contents  with  the  fingers,  from  the  outside.  If  the 
mass  does  not  move'  down  the  digestive  tube  try  sus- 
pending the  fowl  -by  the  legs  and  work  the  contents  of 
the  crop  back  to  and  out  of  the  mouth.  After  emptying 
the  crop  give  no  food  for  thirty-six  hours  but  allow  tne 
fowl  to  drink  a  little  water  containing  twenty  grains 
bicarbonate  soda  to  the  quart.  Then  feed  sparingly  on 
bread  softened  with  milk. 

If  a  surgical  operation  becomes  necessary  in  order  to 
empty  the  crop,  r»nt  the  outer  skin  near  the  upper  part 
of  the  crop.  An  inch  incision  is  large  enough.  Next  cut 
through  the  wall  of  the  crop.  Empty  the  crop  by  using 
the  forefinger.  Wash  out  the  interior  with  one  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Sew  up  the  cuts  with  white  silk,  letting  the  thread 
ends  hang  outside.  In  a  week  if  the  wound  is  healed 
draw  out  the  threads.  Give  for  a  day  or  two  only  water 
containing  one  or  two  drops  of  salicylic  acid  per  quart, 
then  feed  for  several  days  on  bread  soaked  in  milk. 

Depraved  Appetite — Unnatural  craving  may  cause  a 
fowl  to  gorge  itself  with  food  or  to  swallow  substances 
unsuited  to  the  digestive  tract.  This  is  liable  to  cause 
digestive  disorders.  Lack  of  grit  may  result  in  ob- 
struction of  the  gizzard.  Keep  the  fowls  active  on  turf 
ranges  in  summer  and  supply  straw  litter  in  their  runs 
during  winter.  Encourage  exercise  and  supply  abound- 
ant  green  food.  Balance  the  rations.  Keep  granulated 
charcoal  and  grit  within  reach  of  the  flocks. 

If  stoppage,  indigestion  or  diarrhea  result  from  a 
fowl  seeking  to  satisfy  a  depraved  appetite  give  it  a 
dose  of  Epsom  salts,  twenty  grains  in  a  tablespoonful  of 
water.  Put  twenty  grains  of  bicarbonate  soda  in  each 
quart  of  the  drinking  water. 

Diarrhea. — Looseness  of  the  bowels  may  be  caused 
by  digestive  disorders  or  by  a  sudden  chill.  Diarrhea  is 
liable  to  result  from  a  sudden  change  of  diet  especially 
if  animal  food  is  given  in  excess.  It  may  follow  the 
overloading  of  the  digestive  system  with  green  food, 
fermented  food,  damaged  grain,  filthy  water  or  failure 


154      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

to  supply  grit  for  the  gizzard.  Correct  and  regulate  the 
feeding.  Clean  out  the  intestines  by  a  purgative  dose, 
one  teaspoonful  caf  tor  oil  or  twenty  grains  Epsom  salts 
dissolved  in  a  tat  lespoonf  ul  of  water.  After  purging 
give  water  in  which  rice  has  been  cooked,  for  drinking. 
Scalded  milk  will  tendi  to  correct  looseness  of  the 
bowels. 

Diphtheria — The  throat  becomes  inflamed  and  yellow- 
ish areas  form  on  the  linings  insid'e  the  throat  These 
patches  attach  tightly  u>  the  throat  membrane,  differ- 
ing from  the  spots  formed  in  canker  cases,  the  latter  be- 
ing thick  and  cheezy.  The  canker  membrane  can  be 
torn  from  the  throat  lining  without  much  bleeding.  The 
diptheria  membrane  is  almost  impossible  to  separate 
from  the  throat  lining.  Treat  as  directed  for  roup. 

Dysentery — Filthiness  in  food  or  water  may  bring  on 
excessive  looseness  of  the  bowels.  Diarrhea,  if  uncheck- 
ed1 and  aggravated  by  filthy  conditions,  may  develop  into 
dysentery.  The  frequent  thin,  liquid  discharges  are 
malodorous  and  may  spread  the  disease.  Separate  any 
cases  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  Correct  the  conditions. 
Purge  with  Epsom  salts.  Feed  as  directed  in  cases  of 
diarrhea. 

Eczema — White  pimples  appear  on  the  wattles,  in- 
crease in  size,  run  together,  discharge  and  'become  crust- 
ed. Fowl  is  listless  and  loses  appetite.  Annoint  the 
affected  parts  with  oleate  of  zinc.  Give  1vr«  grains  of 
calomel  every  second!  day  for  four  times.  Also  a  one 
grain  pill  of  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine  twice  daily  for 
a  fortnight.  Regulate  the  rations,  give  range  on  grass 
land  and  encourage  exercise  to  stimulate  digestion  and 
blood  circulation. 

Enteritis — Inflamed  condition  of  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  stomach  (so-called)  and  the  intestines  resulting 
in  acute  diarrhea,  caused  by  poisons,  internal  parasites, 
gorging,  fermented  food,  condiments  arid  filth  in  food 
or  water. 

Growing  chicks  and  molting  fowls  are  especially  lia- 
ble to  enteritis  attacks.  Oatarrhal  inflammation  of 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      155 

the  mucous  linings-  of  the  intestinal  tract  may  ensue. 
The  excrement  may  appear  greenish  or  yellowish  and 
there  may  be  looseness  of  the  bowels. 

Give  olive  oil  one  tablespoonful  to  a  dose  three  times 
daily.  Feed  on  bread  soaked  in  milk  and  give  milk  to 
drink. 

Aversion— Protrusion  of  the  inflamed  oviduct  from 
the  vent  may  follow  excessive  straining  in  trying  to 
lay  a  very  large  or  broken  egg. 

Bathe  the  exposed  oviduct  with  one  per  cent,  carbolic 
acid  solution,  apply  carbolated  vaseline  and  gently 
press  it  back  into  place  in  the  body  cavity. 

Give  Epsom  salts  twenty  grains  and  bicarbonate  soda 
two  grains  in  a  tablespoonful  of  water.  Follow  with  one- 
half  drop  of  aconite  three  times  daily.  Give  three  drops 
of  extract  of  ergot.  If  the  derangement  persists  and  the 
fowl  is  in  condition  kill  it  for  the  table. 

Fatty  Degeneration — Fatty  particles  or  globules  take 
the  place  of  the  cell  tissues  of  internal  organs,  such  as 
the  heart,  liver,  ovules,  etc.  The  fowls  become  sluggish 
and  excessively  fat.  Kill  and  dress  for  the  table  before 
the  fatty  degeneration  has  involved  the  vital  organs. 
Avoid  feeding  the  rest  of  the  flock  too  much  food,  espec- 
ially starchy  and  fatty  nutrients. 

Frost  Bite — Freezing  of  the  comb  and  wattles  shows 
in  stiffness  and  purple  color  of  the  frozen  parts,  which 
later  change  to  black  color  and  finally  drop  off.  Thaw 
out  gradually  applying  snow  to  the  frozen  parts. 

After  the  frost  is  out  apply  twice  daily  an  ointment 
composed  of  vaseline  five  parts,  glycerine  two  parts, 
spirits  of  turpentine  one  part. 

Gastritis — Inflammation  or  catarrh  of  the  stomach 
(so-called)  accompanied  by  roughened  plumage,  constipa- 
tion, loss  of  appetite,  exhaustion,  drooping  of  wings, 
emaciation.  There  may  be  fever  indicated  by  excessive 
thirst,  and  quickened  respiration.  Among  the  causes  are 
excess  of  food,  lack  of  grit,  want  of  exercise,  irritation 
due  to  condiments,  pins,  nails,  or  sharp  substances  of 
any  kind  swallowed  by  the  bird.  Purge  with  Epsom 


156      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

salts  or  castor  oil  daily  until  the  bowels  operate  freely. 
Feed  bread  and  milk.  Use  bicarbonate  of  soda,  twenty 
grains  to  the  quart  of  drinking  water. 

Hepatitis — Inflammation  of  the  liver  with  pale  yel- 
low skin,  sluggish  gait  and  failure  of  appetite.  Diarrhea 
may  be  present. 

Give  one  grain  of  calomel  followed  by  twenty  grains 
of  Epsom  salts  in  a  tablespoonful  of  water.  Ten  hours 
later  give  two  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  A  one  grain 
dose  of  napthol  or  benzo-napthol  twice  daily  will  serve 
to  disinfect  the  intestinal  tract. 

Inflamed  Oviduct — Irritation  of  the  oviduct  causes 
straining  or  rubbing  of  the  abdomen  along  the  ground. 
There  may  be  roughened  plumage,  paleness  of  the  head 
aippendiages  and  stupor.  The  inflammation  may  be 
caused  by  excessive  laying  of  eggs  induced  by  feeding 
condimental  mixtures  or  very  stimulating  rations.  Tne 
fowl  has  difficulty  in  depositing  her  eggs  or  lays  soft 
shelled  or  malformed  eggs.  If  in  good  condition  of  flesh 
kill  the  fowl  and!  use  for  the  table. 

Treatment  in  the  early  stages  may  prove  successful. 
Give  Epsom  salts,  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  aconite  as 
described  in  treating  Eversion. 

Jaundice— Over  production  of  bile  and  enlargement 
of  the  gall  bladder  may  come  from  overfeeding  with 
starchy  or  fatty  foods.  The  skin  becomes  tinged  with 
a  peculiar  yellow  color.  Bile  may  become  absorbed  into 
the  blood  vessels  with  deleterious  results. 

Correct  the  rations  and  supply  plenty  of  grit.  Purge 
with  aloes,  one  half  grain  to  a  dose. 

Leg  Weakness— Weakness  of  the  limbs  is  shown  by 
unsteady  gait,  flapping  of  the  wings  to  help  support  the 
body  when  walking,  moving  about  on  the  hocks  and 
squatting  while  feeding. 

Rheumatism  or  injury  may  account  for  this  condi- 
tion in  some  cases  but  it  is  more  often  the  effect  of 
feeding  unbalanced  rations.  An  excess  of  starchy  nutri- 
ents, a  lack  of  protein,  or  deficiency  in  mineral  matter, 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      157 

especially  the  phosphates  of  lime  for  bone  building  may 
produce  these  results. 

Forced  feeding  of  young  chicks  even  with  balanced 
rations  may  cause  too  rapid  growth. 

Excessive  dryness  of  the  brooder  floor,  in  the  case  of 
growing  chicks,  especially  if  there  is  much  artificial 
heating  beneath  the  floor,  may  conduce  to  leg  weakness. 

Correct  the  unfavorable  conditions  of  feeding  and 
surroundings,  making  them  as  natural  as  possible  in 
order  to  avoid  abnormal  growth. 

Pasting  Up — Little  chicks  in  brooders  sometimes  be- 
come plastered  about  the  vent  with  dried  excrement. 
This  may  be  due  to  weakness  of  the  muscles  which  expel 
the  droppings.  Such  weakness  may  be  owing  to  lack  of 
stamina  in  the  parent  stock  or  to  faults  in  incubation. 

Soften  the  pasted  mass  with  warm  water  or  olive  oil 
and  after  removal  smear  the  parts  with  carbolated  vase- 
line. To  clear  the  bowels  give  the  chicks  each  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  olive  oil.  If  not  effective  add  to  the  next 
dose  a  few  drops  of  castor  oil. 

Peritonitis— The  delicate  lining  of  the  abdomen  be- 
comes suddenly  inflamed.  There  is  loss  of  appetite,  list- 
lessness,  painful  attempts  to  pass  droppings,  rapid  loss 
of  strength  until  the  fowl  falls  exhausted.  The  abdom- 
inal walls  feel  hot  and  tense  to  the  hand.  Such  cases 
are  usually  hopeless. 

Pip — A  dry  scale  forms  on  the  tongue  due  to  breath- 
ing through  the  mouth  when  the  nostrils  are  stopped, 
to  deranged  digestion  or  poor  blood  circulation. 

Cure  the  cold  or  digestive  "disorder.  Soften  the  scale 
with  glycerine  diluted  with  an  equal  quantity  of  water. 
Do  not  attempt  to  tear  off  the  scale. 

Pneumonia — There  is  acute  inflammation  of  the  air 
cells  of  the  lungs  due  to  sudden  exposure  to  damp,  chil- 
ling conditions.  If  one's  ear  is  placed  against  the  bird's 
chest  a  crackling  sound  in  the  lungs  is  heard.  The  fowl 
stands  with  drooping  wings  and  pants  for  breath.  There 
is  high  fever. 

Give  one  drop  doses  of  tincture  of  aconite  every  two 


158      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

hours,  keeping  the  patient  in  a  closed  cage  or  room 
where  the  air  is  made  moist  by  vapor  from  boiling 
water,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  few 
hops  have  been  added.  Peed  with  raw  eggs  or  bread 
softened  in  milk. 

Poisoning — May  be  caused  by  excess  of  common  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium).  Give  as  an  antidote  strong  coffee 
or  flaxseed  tea.* 

For  arsenic  poisoning,  from  swallowing  Paris  green 
or  London  purple,  give  boiled  flax  seed  or  white  of  egg. 

To  counteract  the  effects  of  poisoning  by  lead,  cop- 
per, zinc  or  phosphorus  give  the  white  of  egg  or  warm 
water  sweetened  with  sugar. 

Caustic  soda,  potash  (concentrated  lye)  and  nitrate 
of  soda  are  deadly  in  effect  if  taken  internally. 

All  poisonous  substances  should  be  kept  safely  lock- 
ed away.  A  poisoned  fowl,  even  in  case  of  recovery,  is 
likely  to  be  injured  for  life. 

Pox — Chicken  pox  shows  on  the  head  and  underside 
of  the  wings  little  yellowish  pox  sores,  round  or  oblong 
in  shape.  Accompanying  these  there  may  be  pale  combs 
and  wattles,  lack  of  appetite,  weakness  and  sometimes 
blindness. 

Isolate  the  affected  fowl  and  keep  in  comfortable 
quarters.  Rub  the  sore  parts  carefully  but  thoroughly 
with  carbolated  vaseline,  twice  daily. 

Let  the  fowl's  daily  diet  include  finely  cut  boiled 
meat,  green  food  and  a  mash  of  wheat  middlings  and 
corn  meal,  moistened  with  milk. 

Disinfect  the  quarters  and  premises  by  spraying  with 
five  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution. 

Rheumatism — When  the  limbs  are  affected  by  rheu- 
matism a  fowl  usually  has  a  jerky  gait  in  walking  and 
is  inclined  to  squat  upon  the  floor.  Rheumatism  more 
frequently  affects  old  fowls  than  growing  chickens.  In 
some  cases  the  joints  show  soft  swellings,  which  gradu- 
ally harden  and  may  ulcerate. 

Exposure  to  damp,  chilling  conditions  aggravates 
thia  disorder. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      159 

Rub  the  swollen  joints  with  camphorated  sweet  oil 
or  carbolated  vaseline' 

A  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  twenty  grains,  may  be  follow- 
ed the  next  day  by  thirty  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda 
in  each  quart  of  drinking  water. 

Also  give  twice  daily  two  grains  of  salicylic  acid. 

Roup — Discharges  at  nostrils  and  mouth,  frothy  or 
running  eyes,  swelled  head,  offensive  breath,  diptheretic 
patches  in  the  throat,  difficult  breathing  and  swallowing, 
loss  of  sight  and  exhaustion  are  some  of  the  signs  of 
this  scourge  of  poultry.  It  attacks  fowls  especially  when 
they  are  weakened  by  parasites,  by  having  caught  cold, 
by  catarrh  and  influenza.  It  is  particularly  liable  to 
attack  fowls  when  they  are  exposed  to  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  dampness,  foul  air,  filthiness  and  neglect. 

It  is  only  in  the  early  stages  of  this  sickening  dis- 
order that  treatment  has  any  value.  If  a  fowl  catches 
cold  or  shows  any  of  the  symptoms  indicated  immerse 
its  head  in  kerosene*  oil  for  a  moment.  A  mixture  of 
kerosene  and  olive  oil,  half  and  half,  is  less  harsh  in  its 
effect  upon  the  eyes.  This  mixture  may  be  injected  by 
means  of  an  oil  dropper  or  syringe  into  the  nostrils  and 
mouth.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  and  water,  half  and  half, 
may  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  - 

Creolin  or  carbolic  acid  in  one  per  cent,  solutions 
may  be  used  in  like  manner. 

Any  of  these  liquids  will  help  to  clear  the  nasal  and 
throat  passages  and  destroy  disease  germs. 

Keep  the  roupy  fowl  in  a  comfortable  place  away 
from  the  healthy  fowls  of  the  flock. 

Feed  raw  eggs  or  bread  soaked  in  milk  or  beef  tea. 
If  the  eyes  are  affected  it  may  be  necessary  to  force 
the  food  down  the  gullet  by  hand  in  order  to  keep  the 
bird  nourished  and  prevent  starving. 

If  swellings  occur  on  the  head  and  become  filled 
with  thick  pus  they  must  be  cut  open  and  emptied  and 
the  cavities  disinfected  by  washing  or  syringing  with  one 
per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution. 

Even  if  a  roupy  fowl  recovers  it  is  liable  to  be  again 
attacked  toy  this  disease.  Fowls  which  have  had  the 


160      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

roup  should  never  be  used  thereafter  for  breeding  stock. 

Tuberculosis — In  cases  of  tuberculosis  there  is  devel- 
opment of  internal  tubercles  varying  in  size  from  ex- 
treme minuteness  up  to  the  size  of  a  walnut.  These 
tubercles  frequently  form  in  the  lungs  but  may  develop 
in  other  parts  of  the  body,  particularly  the  spleen  and 
liver.  If  the  lungs  are  affected  there  may  be  rapid, 
troubled  breathing,  accompanied  by  some  fever  and 
sometimes  wasting  of  the  flesh.  Diarrhea  may  attend 
the  disease,  increasing  as  the  disease  advances.  The 
bones  and  their  joints  are  sometimes  involved  and  swel- 
lings form,  causing  lameness.  Occasionally  ulcerous 
growths  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  body.  Exhaustion 
finally  results  in  death. 

If  tuberculosis  enters  a  flock  of  fowls  the  only  safe 
way  to  follow  is  destruction  and  burning  of  all  the 
birds  of  the  flock.  The  quarters  should  then  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  and  disinfected  by  spraying  with  five 
per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid.*  Even  the  soil  of  the 
runs  should  be  disinfected.  Expose  the  quarters  to  sun- 
shine and  winds  for  at  least  a  month,  or  better,  for  a 
year  before  again  attempting  to  keep  poultry  on  the 
premises.  A  better  plan  is  to  choose  another  location 
for  the  poultry  plant. 

Vertigo — A  rush  of  blood  to  the  brain  accompanied 
possibly  by  a  slight  hemorrhage  may  cause  giddiness, 
staggering  gait,  walking  in  a  circle,  slight  convulsions 
and  throwing  of  the  head  up  and  back  while  the  bird 
squats  upon  the  ground.  Old  fowls,  especially  if  "exces- 
sively fat,  are. liable  to  attacks  of  vertigo. 

The  fowls  may  be  killed  and  dressed  for  the  table. 

If  it  is  desired  to  try  to  save  a  fowl  affected  with 
vertigo,  correct  the  feeding  by  balancing  the  rations 
and  including  abundant  green  food,  encourage  active 
bodily  exercise  by  scattering  the  small  grains  far  and 
wide  over  the  grass  range  or  throw  into  straw  litter  in 
the  house  or  yard.  Relieve  the  head  by  applications  of 
chopped  ice  or  cloths  wet  witn  cold  water.  Give  Spsom 
salts  thirty  grains  and  bromide  of  potassium  three 
grains  In  a  tablespoonful  of  water,  three  times  daily. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE       161 

Special  Treatises  on  Poultry  Diseases — In  preparing 
the  preceding  notes  on  the  ailments  of  fowls,  the  leading 
medical  authorities  on  the  subject  have  been  freely  con- 
sulted. 

Credit  is  due  especially  to  the  authors  of  the  follow- 
ing valuable  treatises,  which  are  heartily  recommended 
to  any  students  of  the  diseases  of  poultry,  who  wish  to 
pursue  the  subject  farther: 

"The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  by  D.  E.  Salmon,  D.  V. 
M.,  of  America. 

"The  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  by  J.  Woodroffe  Hill, 
F.  R.  C.  V.  S.,  of  Great  Britain. 

"Medicine  des  Aiseaux,"  by  Pierre  Meguin,  of 
France. 

"Die  Krankheiten  des  Hausgefliigels,"  by  Friedrich 
A.  Zuern  of  Germany. 


PIONEER  POULTRY  CLASS,  1898T. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
Marketing 

Successful  sales,  more  than  than  any  other  factor, 
determine  the  degrees  of  financial  profit  in  the  poultry 
business. 

Whatever  increases  or  diminishes  the  satisfactory 
selling  of  the  poultry  products  deserves  careful  consider- 
ation by  the  poultryman. 

THE  SALESMAN. 

It  is  one  thing  to  produce  good  poultry  and  eggs  and 
quite  another  thing  to  dispose  of  the  same  at  a  financial 
gain. 

The  quality  of  the  successful  seller  comes  by  heredi- 
ty to  some  men  and  women.  Some  excellent  producers 
fail  as  sellers  and  some  salesmen  lack  in  the  power  to 
produce.  Sometimes  both  qualities  are  found  well 
developed  in  the  same  individual. 

It  is  here  that  the  characteristics  of  the  trained  busi- 
ness man  come  particularly  into  play  in  poultry  culture. 

Experience  in  the  producing  line  is  a  very  desirable 
part  of  the  preparation  for  successful  selling.  The  sales- 
man should  know  all  about  the  products. 

The  seller  of  the  productions  of  a  poultry  farm  must 
watch  the  market  and  make  a  study  of  the  art  of  selling 
well. 

He  should  be  a  good  advertiser  to  sell  advantageous- 
ly some  lines  of  poultry  productions. 

He  aims  to  sell  on  a  rising  market  i.  e.,  when  prices 
are  advancing  rather  than  declining. 

He  should  be  shrewd  at  a  bargain  but  honest  and 
fair  in  all  his  dealings,  if  he  would  continue  to  make 
sales  to  his  best  customers. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      163 

THE  BUSINESS. 

The  poultry  business  includes  three  quite  distinct 
lines  viz. :  Producing,  preparing  and  selling  the  products. 

When  poultry-keeping  is  conducted  on  a  small  scale 
these  three  branches  are  commonly  controlled  by  one 
person— the  poultryman. 

When  the  size  and  extent  of  the  business  on  a  poul- 
try farm  or  in  a  community  of  poultry-keepers  warrants, 
it  is  often  advantageous  to  separate  the  branches. 

The  producer  bends  all  his  energies  and  seeks  to 
control  all  the  conditions  with  the  aim  to  make  the  best 
and  most  salable  products.  The  collector  and  finisher 
seeks  to  obtain  the  best  stock  for  his  purpose  and  pre- 
pares the  products  with  extreme  carefulness. 

The  seller  seeks  to  get  the  largest  net  returns  by  dis- 
posing of  the  finished  products  to  the  consumer. 

If  the  poultryman  must  combine  in  himself  the  qual- 
ities of  all  three  of  these  specialists,  let  him  study  the 
work  of  the  experts  in  each  of  the  three  lines  and  so 
far  as  practicable  adopt  the  methods  which  win  success 
and  profit. 

The  poultryman  should  at  least  keep  posted  daily  as 
to  market  prices  and  conditions. 

THE   PEODUCTS. 

The  products  of  the  poultry  plant  are  valuable  and 
should  be  prepared  so  as  to  appear  attractive  to  possible 
purchasers. 

These  products  should. prove  their  value  both  by 
quality  and  quantity. 

The  purchaser  is  thus  pleased  at  the  time  of  buying 
and  satisfied  when  the  products  are  used.  He  comes  to 
buy  again. 

The  tastes  of  the  consumer  and  the  customs  of  the 
market  should  be  kept  in  mind.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
cater  to  the  prejudices  and  habits  of  the  consumer,  even 
though  the  poultryman  feels  that  the  products  thus  fur- 
nished are  lacking  in  some  ways.  The  financial  returns 
are  the  main  thing  and  he  can  gradually  educate  his 


164      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

customers  up  to  something  better  and  secure  increase- 
profit  while  eventually  giving  the  buyer  a  more  satis- 
factory article. 

Certainly  less  profit  and  oftentimes  loss  results  from 
the  bad  appearance  of  eggs  and  dressed  fowl  because 
of  poor  preparation  for  market.  It  costs  but  little  if 
any  more  to  finish  the  products  according  to  the  skilful 
methods  of  trained  experts,  and  the  prices  thus  secured 
greatly  increase  the  net  profits. 

There  is  considerable  variety  in  the  kinds  and  forms 
of  poultry  products  offered  for  sale. 

EGGS. 

The  first  object  of  many  keepers  of  poultry  is  to  se- 
cure an  ample  supply  of  nice,  fresh  eggs  for  home  con- 
sumption. Millions  of  eggs  are  thus  used  and  never 
come  into  the  markets  to  be  sold. 

Great  numbers  of  eggs  are  also  used  for  hatching 
chickens  to  supply  the  table  of  the  poultry-keepers. 
Quantities  of  eggs  for  hatching  are  also  disposed  of  to 
parties  who  grow  broilers  and  roasters  for  market. 
There  is  further  a  large  trade  in  eggs  of  pure-brei  anv, 
fancy  fowls  sold  for  hatching. 

The  bulk  of  the  eggs  produced,  however,  go  to  the 
great  city  markets.  The  demand  is  constant  and  the 
supply  is  regulated  to  a  considerable  degree  by  means  cf 
cold  storage  houses  which  hold  the  surplus  until  necde:'. 

FOWL. 

The  home  table  requires  a  large  number  of  fowl  of 
those  raised  on  the  farms  and  in  the  yards  of  poultry- 
men. 

Many  pullets  are  sold  to  replenish  laying  flocks  in 
towns  and  villages,  where  the  poultry-keepers  find  it 
Inconvenient  or  impossible  to  raise  their  own  chickens. 

There  is  also  a  large  business  done  in  selling  breed- 
ing stock  to  poultry-keepers  who  wish  to  improve  their 
flocks  or  desire  to  have  pure-bred  fowls  only,  in  their 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      165 

yards.     There  is  a  considerable  demand  also  for  exhibi- 
tion and  fancy  fowls. 

The  mass  of  fowls  sold,  however,  go  as  live  ana 
dressed  poultry  into  the  markets  of  the  centers  of  popu- 
lation to  be  consumed  as  food.  Poultry  is  a  favorite 
article  of  diet  in  demand  throughout  the  four  seasons. 

Squab-Broilers: — Chickens  hatched  in  the  winter 
months  and  confined  to  brooders  or  brooding  houses  can 
be  grown  rapidly  for  eight  to  ten  weeks  and  will  then 
weigh  from  three-fourths  of  a  pound  to  a  pound  and 
one-half.  These  plump  little  birds  are  in  demand  as 
squab-broilers  for  the  tables  of  hotels,  restaurants  and 
club-houses  in  some  large  cities. 

Spring  Broilers: — Chickens  hatched  in  early  spring 
and  grown  to  a  weight  of  two  pounds  are  in  good  de- 
mand throughout  the  spring  and  summer  season. 

Fryers: — Chicks  grown  to  a  weight  of  about  two  and 
one-half  pounds  are  much  in  demand  in  some  sections 
for  frying.  In  some  markets,  however,  chickens  weigh- 
ing between  two  and  three  pounds  are  not  desired. 

Small  Roasters: — Chickens  weighing  three  pounds 
or  slightly  over  that  weight  sell  well  if  plump  and  tender 
of  flesh. 

The  favorite  sizes  of  roasters  sold  in  the  fall  range 
from  three  to  five  pounds  weight. 

Large  Roasters: — There  is  some  demand  for  roast- 
ers weighing  eight  to  twelve  pounds.  Hotels  and  res- 
taurants can  use  these  sizes  to  advantage. 

Soft  Roasters: — A  special  trade  has  been  developed 
in  roasters  grown  from  chickens  hatched  in  late  summer 
and  early  fall,  kept  growing  well  through  the  winter  and 
sold  in  the  spring.  The  cockerels  are  caponized  and  the 
pullets  are  marketed  just  before  they  would  begin  laying 
eggs.  Very  satisfactory  prices  are  obtained  for  these 
soft  roasters. 

Capons: — Castrated  cockerels  retain  tenderness  of 
flesh  and  become  plump,  juicy  fowls  for  selling  during 
the  late  fall,  winter  and  spring.  Capons  usually  sell  for 
an  advance  in  price  over  cockerels.  If  fattened  by  tne 


166      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


FATTENING 
CRATE-Length 
seven  and  one- 
half  feet,  divided 
into  three  com- 
partments, each 
two  and  one-half 
feet  in  length; 
height  eighteen 
inches;  depth 
eighteen  inches. 
MATERIAL— 
Posts  for  corners 
and  where  parti- 
tions are  inserted 
are  one  and  one- 
quarter  inches  by 
one  inch  stuff. 
Top  and  bottom 
rails  are  one  inch 
by  two  inches. 
Slats  for  front  are 
one-quarter  inch 
by  three-eighths 
and  are  s.et  two 
inches  apart. 
The  top  is  of 
three-  eighths 
inch  matched 
lumber  an  d  i  s 
made  tight.  The 
bottom  is  made 
of  triangular 
strips  one  inch 
in  thickness,  one 
and  one-quarter 
inch  in  width 
at  the  base 
and  one-quarter 
inch  at  the  apex. 
(In  the  drawing 
these  are  shown 
two  inches 
apart).  The  ad- 
vantage of  bot- 
tom strips  of  this 
shape  lies  in  the 
fact  that  they 
make  the  coop 
practically  self- 
cleaning. 

Each  compart- 
ment is  provided 
with  a  door 
eight  inches  by 
twelve  inches  in 
size,  made  of 

one-half  inch  stuff.  A  heavy  wire,  stapled  both  to  the  door  and  to 
the  slats  beside  it,  forms  a  hinge,  permitting  the  door  to  swing  in- 
ward. A  staple  driven  into  the  slat  near  the  bottom  of  the  door  pre- 
vents the  latter  from  swinging  outward.  In  order  to  econ9mize  space 
in  the  fattening  building,  these  coops  may  be  used  in  two  tiers, 
the  bottom  of  the  first  tier  being  approximately  eighteen  inches 
from  the  floor,  and  of  the  second  tier  eight  inches  above  the  top  of 
the  lower  tier. 


FATTENING   CRATE 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      167 

cramming  method  they  make  especially  toothsome  table- 
fowl  and  in  certain  city  markets  command  an  extra 
price. 

IMPROVEMENT  IN   CONDITION. 

Improvement^  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  his  pro- 
ducts should  be  the  watchword  of  the  progressive  poul- 
tryman. 

A  clean,  new-laid,  limpid,  fine-flavored  egg  is  a 
source  of  delight,  while  a  dirty  egg  of  uncertain  age  is 
very  liable  to  occasion  disgust. 

The  poultryman  can  certainly  insure  the  freshness 
of  his  eggs  by  prompt  collection.  He  can  secure  clean- 
liness of  the  shells  by  keeping  fresh  straw  or  hay  in  the 
nests,  dry  floors  and  neat  arrangements  in  the  laying 
house. 

If  pure,  white-shelled  eggs  are  desired,  these  can  be 
obtained  by  the  right  selection  of  breed  and  proper 
housing,  feeding  and  management. 

If  brown  or  tinted  shells  are  in  demand  he  keeps 
breeding  stock  that  produces  eggs  of  the  desired  color 
of  shell.  He  further  selects  for  breeders  the  best  layers 
and  those  that  yield  eggs  of  desirable  size  and  shape. 
By  the  use  of  trap-nests  and  careful  rejection  of  non- 
layers,  poor  egg  producers  and  layers  of  eggs  of  undesir- 
able color,  size  or  shape,  a  "brown-egg-lay^ng  strain"  is 
soon  established.  Eggs  of  such  fowl  command  the  best 
prices  in  the  brown  egg  market. 

Breeding  Stock: — A  similar  plan  of  selection  will 
apply  in  case  stock  is  raised  to  sell  for  breeding  or  exhi- 
bition. Improvement  in  fancy  fowls  as  well  as  in  birds 
yielding  market  products,  may  be  made  by  using  pure- 
bred parent  stock  of  the  best  family  to  be  found  and 
proceeding  according  to  the  principles  of  breeding  (See 
Chapter  TI.),  selecting  and  mating  judiciously,  and  cull- 
ing courageously.  Increased  profit  must  follow  in  due 
time. 

Market  Fowl: — In  growing  chickens  for  market  it  is 
desirable  to  have  a  flock  of  breeders  which  produce  birds 


168      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

that  are  uniformly  of  one  pattern  and  that  of  the  best 
size  and  shape  for  the  purpose. 

After  good  breeding  has  laid  the  right  foundation, 
expert  incubating  and  brooding  should  provide  chicks 
which,  by  proper  feeding  and  skilful  management  de- 
velop thriftily.  There  should  be  no  halting  in  growth. 

Broilers  are  to  be  marketed  while  l>lump  and  tender, 
before  there  comes  a  reaction  from  the  forced  feeding  in 
constricted  quarters,  and  previous  to  the  plentiful  preva- 
lence of  pin  feathers. 

Cockerels  intended  for  marketing  as\  roasters  should 
be  caponized  at  about  three  months  old.  (See  Chap- 
ter V.) 

Roasters  should  be  finished  by  one  month  of  fatten- 
ing in  coops  or  small  yards. 

The  autumn  season  is  best  suited  to  successful  fat- 
tening of  fowls. 

The  cramming  method  gives  the  birds  a  finish  which 
can  not  be  excelled.  The  cockerels  or  capons  are  con- 
fined in  airy,  slatted  coops  and  fed  the  first  week  all 
they  will  eat  from  troughs.  For  the  following  taree 
weeks  the  birds  are  crammed  by  hand  or  by  machine 
with  a  fattening  ration. 

The  weight  of  a  chicken  is  thus  increased  from  twen- 
ty-five to  fifty  per  cent,  and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  is 
immensely  improved. 

THE    CRAMMING    PROCESS. 

Quiet  quarters  somewhat  secluded  and  not  too 
bright,  are  favorable  for  fattening. 

To  avoid  loss  of  nutriment  by  exercise  the  birds  are 
closely  confined. 

The  fattening  coops  are  made  of  slats  one-half  inch 
thick  and  one  and  one-half  inches  wide.  The  slats  on 
the  sides,  ends  and  top  are  placed  two  inches  apart, 
while  those  on  the  bottom  are  separated  by  three-fourtns 
of  an  inch  spaces.  The  Canadian  fattening  coop  is  made 
six  and  one-half  feet  in  length,  sixteen  inches  from  front 
to  back  and  eighteen  inches  high.  This  style  has  two 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      169 


170      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

board  partitions,  making  three  compartments,  each  large 
enough  for  five  chickens. 

A  V-shaped  feed-trough,  three  inches  deep,  made  of 
boards  of  three-fourths  inch  thickness,  is  supported  on 
notched  end  boards,  holding  the  trough  in  front  of  the 
coop  just  above  the  level  of  the  floor.  Vertical  sliding 
doors,  each  of  three  upright  slats  nailed  to  a  top  and 
bottom  cleat  at  the  front  of  the  coops  give  access  to  the 
compartments. 

Healthy,  well  grown  chickens  of  three  to  three  and 
one-half  pounds  weight  are  well  suited  for  fattening  by 
the  cramming  process. 

Gravel  or  other  form  of  grit  is  supplied  two  or  three 
times  a  week.  Wkter  is  given  twice  daily  and  not  left 
before  the  birds. 

During  the  first  week  the  chickens  are  fed  from  the 
tvough  all  they  will  eat  three  times  a  day. 

Dufing  the  second,  third  and  fourth  weeks  the  birds 
are  crammed  twice  daily.  If  at  cramming  time  there  is 
any  food  left  in  a  bird's  crop  he  is  left  unfed  until  the 
next  meal.  If  a  chicken  gets  out  of  condition  he  is 
given  a  teaspoonful  of  Glauber's  Salts  (soda  sulfate) 
and;  turned  out  on  a  grassed  run. 

The  food  consists  of  very  finely  ground  barley  meal, 
corn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  oat  meal  and  animal  meal 
mixed  with  skim-milk  or  butter-milk.  Buckwheat  flour 
and  finely  ground  millet  are  sometimes  used. 

A  sample  ration  may  be  made  of  the  following: 
Corn-meal  by  weight  five  parts;  wheat  middlings,  four 
parts;  ground  oats,  one  part;  animal  meal,  one  part. 

During  the  last  week  melted  fat  may  be  mingled  in 
the  paste,  at  first  one-fourth  pound,  increasing  daily 
until  ten  ounces  per  day  are  used  for  twenty  chickens. 
The  food  is  mixed  several  hours  before  using,  to  a 
smooth,  creamy  paste  of  just  the  right  consistency  to 
flow  when  forced  into  the  bird's  crop. 

There  are  a  number  of  English  and  American  cram- 
ming machines  manufactured  for  sale.  Usually  a  bucket- 
shaped  reservoir  holds  the  paste  which  passes  as  needed 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      171 

into  a  cylinder  and  is  froced  by  a  piston  operated  by 
foot  power  into  a  metal  or  vulcanite  tube.  This  feeding 
tube  is  about  one-half  inch  in  diameter  and  long  enough 
to  be  extended  down  the  fowl's  throat  to  the  crop. 


FlR5T-COLUMBIAN-WYAKDOTT£-COCK  -NEW  YORK-1905 


Courtesy  Aug.  D.  Arnold 

In  operating  the  chicken  is  held  firmly  between  the 
left  arm  and  the  body  of  the  feeder  who  holds  the  head 
of  the  chicken  in  his  left  hand  the  comb  lying  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  The  mouth  of  the  bird  is  opened  Dy 


172      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

the  thumb  and  index  finger,  the  tongue  is  held  down  by 
the  finger,  the  end  of  the  tube  is  inserted  and  passed 
down  the  throat,  which  should  be  held  straight.  The 
right  hand  of  the  operator  guides  the  end  of  the  tube 
safely  by  the  entrance  to  the  wind  pipe  and  prevents  the 
tube  passing  too  far  into  the  crop.  Pressing  lightly  wii^i 
the  foot  on  the  lever  forces  the  paste  into  the  crop  until 
it  is  full.  The  bird  is  then  returned  to  the  coop.  The 
feeder  should  have  an  assistant  to  take  the  chickens,  one 
by  one,  from  the  fattening  coop,  hand  them  to  the  oper- 
ator and  take  away  the  chickens  as  fast  as  crammed. 

IMPROVEMENT  IN  SELLING. 

On  farms  where  fowls  are  endured  rather  than  en- 
couraged, very  primitive  ways  of  preparing  and  dispos- 
ing of  the  poultry  products  have  sometimes  bee,n  prac- 
ticed. 

The  eggs  were  gathered  when  someone  happened  to 
think  it  time  or  when  the  cackling  of  a  hen  suggested 
that  the  search  for  eggs  would  be  rewarded.  Fresh  eggs, 
old  eggs,  clean  eggs,  dirty  eggs,  partially  incubated  eggs 
— a  miscellaneous  collection — were  put  in  a  box  or 
basket  and  taken  on  the  next  trip  to  the  village  grocery. 

Naturally,  not  a  very  high  price  was  obtained  for 
such  eggs  and  perhaps  the  goods  taken  in  exchange,  es- 
pecially in  the  days  before  the  food  laws  were  in  opera- 
tion, corresponded  quite  closely  in  value  to  the  hetero- 
geneous eggs. 

The  chickens  raised  at  random  were  caught  before 
the  holidays,  the  pullets  reserved  and  the  cockerels  put 
in  heavy  crates  or  unwieldy  boxes,  and  carted  alive  to 
a  market  and  "sold  for  what  they  would  fetch." 

In  some  localities  there  was  an  improvement  on  this 
plan  because  hucksters  came  to  the  farm,  bought  the 
chickens  at  intervals  and  took  them  away,  but  the  prices 
realized  did  not  point  to  the  profitableness  of  poultry 
production. 

On  many  farms  where  these  careless,  neglectful, 
wasteful  ways  once  prevailed  there  are  now  much  better 
methods  in  vogue. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      173 

Frequently  the  change  for  the  better  has  been  the 
result  of  the  thoughtful  action  of  the  housewife  or  of  the 
farmer's  boy  or  girl. 

By  the  new  plan  the  eggs  are  collected  from  the 
clean  nests  systematically,  once  or  twice  a  day,  kept  at 
home  hardly  a  day  in  a  cool,  sweet  smelling  room,  placed 
in  nice  baskets  or  clean  crates  and  promptly  delivered  to 
the  dealer  who  pays  cash  at  perhaps  an  advance  of  cne 
or  two  cents  per  dozen  on  the  market  quotations. 

The  chickens  are  culled  early  and  if  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  broilers,  the  cockerels  are  killed,  picked,  pre- 
pared for  sale  and  marketed.  Thus  there  is  a  saving  of 
food  and  labor  for  their  further  growth  and  they  do  not 
come  upon  the  market  later  when  the  mass  of  dressed 
poultry  is  more  than  filling  the  demand. 

A    RETAIL    BOUTE. 

The  next  advance  where  the  location  and  conditions 
warrant  it,  is  to  establish  a  retail  route  among  good 
paying  family  customers.  Such  a  business  may  be  com- 
bined with  a  route  for  the  delivery  of  milk,  butter,  veg- 
etables, fruit  or  other  produce  or  be  run  independently. 

To  start  and  maintain  such  a  trade  may  call  for 
.courage  and  persistent,  patient  work,  but  it  certainly 
pays  a  profit  under  favorable  conditions. 

The  member  of  the  farm  family  having  in  greatest 
, degree  the  salesman's  qualities  is  the  one  to  attend  to 
this  part  of  the  business. 

It  may  require  some  personal  solicitation  to  get  the 
first  customers  and  attractive  advertising  may  be  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  trade  but  it  does  not  take  i  very 
large  number  of  families  to  consume  the  products  of  a 
poultry  plant  of  considerable  size. 

The  products  themselves  should  advertise  their  qual- 
ity. ;Sometimes  a  sample  package  of  clean,  fresh  eggs 
or  a  plump  chicken  neatly  dressed,  will,  if  presented  to  a 
family,  win  a  new  customer. 

To  hold  customers  it  is  necessary  that  the  supply  of 
eggs  and  chickens  be  sure  and  sufficient,  the  delivery 


174      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

regular  and  prompt  and  all  the  dealings  fair  and  square 
in  every  respect. 

The  fresh  eggs  should  be  sorted  so  as  to  secure  uni- 
formity in  filling  each  order  as  to  color  of  .shell,  size  and 
shape  of  eggs.  There  should  be  rejection  of  such  as  are 
of  very  large  or  very  small  size,  irregular  shape,  imper- 
fect shell  and  soiled  or  stained  appearance.  iSlight  soiMng 
may  be  removed  by  a  dampened  cloth,  when  the  egg  is 
quickly  wiped  dry.  If  eggs  become  so  dirty  as  to  require 
washing  the  conditions  of  the  laying  house  need  correc- 
tion. Buyers  of  eggs  for  cold  storage  houses  reject  eggs 
that  have  been  washed'  as  they  consider  the  keeping 
qualities  of  the  eggs  to  be  injured  by  wetting  the  shells. 

Eggs  for  a  fancy  trade,  such  as  soda  fountains,  or 
very  particular  customers  are  sometimes  stamped  with 
the  date  of  laying.  A  rubber  stencil  stamp  answers  this 
purpose  nicely.  The  name  of  the  poultry  plant  or  its 
owner  may  be  added  if  so  desired. 

Eggs  may  be  attractively  put  up  if  placed  in  paste- 
board cartons.  These  little  boxes  have  partitions,  or 
"fillers,"  so  that  each  egg  is  in  a  compartment  by  itself 
and  may  be  transported  in  safety.  The  cartons,  each 
holding  one  dozen  eggs,  may  be  packed  in  a  crate  for 
shipment. 

Both  cartons  and  crates  are  now  manufactured  in 
large  quantities  and  sold  very  cheaply.  Crates  may  be 
made  for  holding  both  eggs  and  chickens  dressed  for 
family  supply  and  shipped  to  retail  customers  by  express. 

There  should  be  in  America,  as  in  most  progressive 
countries,  a  parcel®  post  by  which  packages  of  this  kind 
could  be  sent  anywhere  and  quickly  delivered  at  slight 
expense. 

The  cartons  and  crates  may  be  marked  in  neat,  clear 
letters  with  the  name  of  the  poultry  farm  sending  the 
products  and  thus  help  to  advertise  the  same.  Chickens 
for  retail  family  supply  may  be  dressed  according  to  me 
demand  and  each  wrapped  in  white  parchment  or  par- 
affined paper.  The  orders  for  both  eggs  and  chickens 
may  usually  be  filled  once,  or  at  most,  twice  a  week  In 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      175 

running  a  retail   route  exclusively   devoted   to  poultry 
products. 

SPECIAL    CITY    TBADE. 

A  poultry  farm  which  seeks  to  supply  eggs  and 
dressed  chickens  to  hotels,  restaurants,  clubs,  hospitals, 
asylums,  private  schools,  etc.,  can  usually  secure  good 
prices  if  equipped  so  that  the  quality  and  supply  of  its 
products  will  be  unfailing. 

Catering  to  such  a  demand  calls  for  excellent  busi- 
ness qualities  in  the  poultry  man  as  well  as  first-class 
goods  for  filling  the  orders. 

The  poultry  plant  should  be  large  and  well  equipped. 
Its  manager  should  be  able  to  draw  supplies  from  other 
farms  whenever  an  extra  large  order  calls  for  more 
goods  than  his  plant  can  supply. 

RETAIL  DEALERS. 

In  the  cities  and  large  towns  the  leading  grocers 
and  provision  dealers  will  often  be  glad  to  pay  cash  at 
prices  a  little  above  the  market  quotations  for  guaran- 
teed prime  poultry  products  regularly  delivered. 

A  good  time  to  start  in  securing  such  a  trade  is  dur- 
ing the  fall  when  fresh  eggs  are  scarce  and  advancing  in 
price. 

By  sending  or  delivering  to  the  dealer  a  few  samples 
of  his  products  and  showing  positively  that  a  given  quan- 
tity will  be  regularly  shipped,  a  bargain  advantageous  to 
both  parties  may  be  made. 

By  such  an  arrangement  the  producer  avoids  the 
trouble  of  filling  numerous  small  orders  and  also  reduces 
the  expense  of  shipping  and  delivering. 

COMMISSION   HOUSES. 

If  the  poultryman  has  not  the  time  or  inclination,  or 
is  not  equipped  for  catering  to  private  families,  hotels, 
or  retail  dealers  he  may  easily  dispose  of  his  products  in 
the  general  market.  It  is  not  difficult  to  consign  the 
eggs  and  chickens  to  a  commission  merchant  and  if  the 


176      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

returns  are  not  high  the  expenses  of  this  form  of  ship- 
ment are  also  moderate.  The  poultryman  should  watc.i 
the  fluctuations  of  the  market  and  ship  only  when  the 
conditions  are  favorable.  The  merchant  will  usually 
supply  a  regular  shipper  with  weekly  published  market 
quotations  and  the  poultryman  will  also  find  them  in  tne 
newspapers.  If  the  producer  finds  a  good  commission 
merchant,  who  handles  his  products  well,  sends  prompt 
returns  at  fair  prices  and  treats  him  right  as  to  crates, 
breakage,  etc.,  then  this  method  of  marketing  may  prove 
very  satisfactory. 

If  the  poultryman's  goods  are  first  class  and  sent  in 
good  condition  regularly  he  may  get  an  advance  on 
usual  market  prices. 

Reliable  commission  men,  who  do  a  large  business 
in  prime  poultry  products,  appreciate  highly  the  consign- 
ments of  poultrymen  who  send  them  only  the  best  eggs 
and  chickens,  regularly  and  in  large  quantities. 

BARTER   OB   EXCHANGE. 

If  the  farmer  finds  it  undesirable  to  dispose  of  his 
poultry  products  in  any  of  these  ways  he  may  still  be 
able  to  secure  better  returns  than  by  following  the  old 
way  if  he  will  see  to  it  that  the  eggs  are  clean,  fresh 
and  frequently  delivered  to  the  village  dealer. 

The  chickens  may  well  be  sold  before  the  bulk  of 
the  poultry  goes  upon  the  fall  market. 

By  keeping  posted  as  to  market  prices  he  may  at 
least  avoid  being  beaten  down  in  price  by  an  unscrupu- 
lous dealer. 

He  may  also  become  posted  as  to  the  goods  which  he 
takes  in  exchange  for  his  products.  Local  grocers  are 
usually  willing  to  supply  standard  goods  of  the  brands 
desired. 

The  bulletins  and  reports  of  the  department  of  agri- 
culture, the  experiment  stations  and  state  food  commis- 
sioners or  inspectors  will  keep  the  farmer  and  poultry- 
keeper  informed  as  to  brands  of  food  that  are  adulter- 
ated. In  exchange  for  his  good  eggs  and  chickens  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      177 

producer  certainly  should  obtain  reliable,  valuable,  una- 
dulterated goods.    It  is  his  own  fault  if  he  fails  to  do  so. 

SYSTEM     IN     MARKETING. 

In  some  sections  where  the  quantities  of  poultry  pro- 
ductions warrant  it  collectors  gather  frequently  and  reg- 
ularly the  eggs  and  fowl  from  the  numerous  farms  and 
poultry  yards. 

The  eggs  are  sorted,  packed  and  shipped  promptly  to 
the  best  market  available. 

The  chickens  are  prepared  by  fattening,  finishing, 
killing,  dressing  and  packing.  Then  shipments  are 
made  so  as  to  meet  demands  and  not  glut  the  market  at 
any  point. 

Co-operation  is  coming  into  play  in  the  disposal  of 
eggs  and  fowl  in  some  sections. 

The  producers  unite  to  protect  their  interests  and  by 
their  organization  control  the  output  of  poultry  prod- 
ucts. In  Ireland,  for  instance,  eggs  are  thus  collected 
and  sold  very  successfully.  The  guaranty  of  the  associa- 
tion goes  with  every  egg  and  helps  its  price  in  the  mar- 
ket. The  benefits  to  producer,  handler  and  consumer 
are  material. 

In  Australia  poultry  products  are  sold  at  auction  in 
certain  large  markets.  The  price  thus  obtained  depends 
upon  supply  and  demand,  considering  also  the  quality 
of  the  products. 

In  many  of  the  world's  large  cities  the  producers 
sell  in  the  "market  place"  to  customers  who  come  and 
buy  their  supplies  for  the  table  on  "market  days."  Com- 
petition is  free,  supply  and  demand  regulate  prices  to  a 
considerable  extent  and  quality  of  the  products  always 
counts  for  a  good  price.  A  pleased  purchaser  will  usual- 
ly come  again  to  buy. 

SELLING  LIVE  FOWL. 

In  some  city  markets  there  is  a  good  demand  for 
live  fowl.  The  quotations  often  make  it  possible  for  the 
producer,  not  too  far  away,  to  sell  his  fowls  alive  at  as 


178      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


good  prices  as  if  killed  and  dressed.  In  cities  having  a 
numerous  population  of  Jewish  people,  there  is  at  certain 
seasons  a  particular  demand  for  plump,  live  fowl.  It  is 
well  for  the  poultryman  to  post  himself  as  to  the  times 
when  his  live  fowl  will  be  wanted  at  good  prices,  fatten 
his  birds  in  preparation  for  such  seasons  and  dispose 
of  his  stock  to  advantage. 

Live  fowls  are  usually  shipped  to  market  in  shallow, 
slatted  crates.  The  ordinary  size  is  six  feet  long,  four 
feet  wide,  and  one  foot  high.  The  slats  are  from  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  to  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  placed  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  apart  and  nailed  firmly.  A  parti- 
tion in  the  middle  makes  the  crate  capable  of  carrying 
chickens  with  added  safety  as  it  prevents  excessive 
crowding  or  crushing  of  the  birds  when  the  crate  is 
recklessly  handled  en  route.  The  crate  has  a  slatted  door 
in  the  top.  The  fowls  should  be  fed  well  just  before 
shipping,  unless  very  near  market. 

Great  numbers  of  breeding,  laying,  exhibition  and 
fancy  fowl  are  sold  which  go  to  customers  who  wish  to 
use  them  for  the  various  purposes  indicated  or  to  keep 
them  for  pets. 

For  the  transportation  of  such  birds  special  ship- 
ping coops  are  manufactured  which  are  usually  smaller 
and  higher  than  the  marketing  crates  before  mentioned. 

Light,  strong  shipping  coops  are  made  of  wooden  or 
iron  rods  or  large  wire  except  the  bottom,  which  is 
'boarded. 

Slatted  coops  are  also  used.  Cotton  cloth  or  duck- 
ing may  be  used  to  cover  the  top  and  sides  of  the  coop  to 
protect  the  live  birds  from  draughts  or  chilling  during 
transportation. 

The  door  of  the  coop  is  usually  midway  at  the  front 
and  may  be  made  to  slide  up  and  down. 

DRESSED   FOWL   FOB   MABKET. 

On  a  poultry  farm  which  provides  dressed  fowls  for 
sale  there  should  be  a  house  or  room  set  apart  for  killing 
picking,  dressing  and  packing  the  fowl  in  preparation 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      179 

for  shipment.  The  room  should  be  well  lighted  and  may 
well  be  located  contiguous  to  or  near  by  the  cold  storage 
compartment  or  cooling  room.  It  should  not  be  far  from 
the  headquarters  or  office.  'It  ought  to  be  capable  of 
easy  and  thorough  ventilation  and  must  have  an  abund- 
ant supply  of  water.  The  loft  of  the  house  in  which  the 
killing  and  picking  is  done  may  be  used  for  the  drying 
and  storage  of  feathers,  the  storing  of  shipping  crates, 
etc.  Before  killing,  the  fowls  should  be  starved  for 
twenty-four  hours,  to  empty  their  crops  and  reduce  the 
contents  of  their  intestines. 

KILLING    FOWL. 

The  fowl  to  be  killed  should  be  suspended  from 
hooks  or  nails  so  as  to  be  at  the  right  height  for  easy 
operation.  The  two  legs  have  each  a  cord  attached  by 
a  loop  which  is  readily  slipped  on  or  off  over  the  foot 
and  at  the  other  end  a  hook  or  loop  is  attached  to  the 
nail  above. 

The  head  of  the  fowl  is  held  in  one  hand  and  a 
sharp  pointed  knife  in  the  other.  The  fowl  is  bled  by  a 
quick  cut  across  the  roof  of  the  mouth  back  where  the 
arteries  enter  the  head.  A  thrust  is  then  made  through 
the  natural  slit  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  into  the  bird's 
brain.  Next  attach  to  the  lower  mandible  a  little  pail 
having  a  narrow  mouth  and  provided  with  a  wire  hook 
for  attaching  to  the  bill  through  its  middle. 

PLUCKING. 

If  picked  dry  the  feathers  should  be  stripped  from 
the  fowl's  body  as  quickly  as  possible  after  the  brain  is 
pierced  by  the  blade.  A  box  or  barrel  for  the  large  wing 
and  tail  feathers  and  another  for  the  soft  feathers  should 
be  placed  handy.  A  basin  of  water  near  by  may  bs  used 
to  wet  the  fingers  if  necessary. 

The  large  feathers  may  be  torn  out  first^#and  then 
the  feathers  along  the  breast,  base  of  wings,  neck  and 
legs,  where  the  skin  of  the  fowl  after  picking  presents 
a  somewhat  rough  or  "goose  flesh"  appearance.  These 


180       PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

areas  of  the  surface  of  the  fowl's  body  are  the  places 
where  the  skin  tears  most  easily.  The  feathers  of  the 
back  may  usually  be  rolled  off  by  handfuls.  The  matur- 
ity or  ripeness  of  the  plumage  helps  greatly  in  picking 
clean  and  the  chicken  should  be  killed  when  pin  feathers 
are  not  too  plentiful. 

If  any  stubs  of  feathers  remain,  use  a  knife  blade. 
Catching  the  stub  between  the  blade  and  the  thumb 
enables  the  picker  to  remove  the  stub  easily.  If  however, 
this  plan  fails  the  skin  over  the  quill  may  be  slit  and 
the  stub  is  readily  extracted. 

Scalding — Some  markets  will  take  scalded  fowl  and 
if  properly  done  the  operation  of  picking  is  thereby  ren- 
dered very  easy.    Water  at  boiling  point,  but  not  actu 
ally  "boiling  is  used. 

The  fowl  after  killing  is  held  by  the  head  and  feet, 
dipped  into  the  hot  water,  lifted  up  and  down  s?vera< 
times  and  then  hung  up  by  the  cords  attached  to  the  feet. 

The  feathers  are  rolled  off  speedily,  care  being  taken 
not  to  bruise  or  start  the  skin.  If  even  the  scarf  skin  is 
loosened  or  rubbed  off  these  spots  will  turn  dark  in  color 
and  the  appearance  of  the  dressed  fowl  will  be  very 
much  injured.  The  head  and  legs  should  not  be  scalded. 

To  plump  the  picked  fowl  and  greatly  improve  its 
appearance,  the  carcass  is  plunged  into  cold  water  after 
being  dipped  in  scalding  water.  It  may  be  left  len  or 
fifteen  minutes  in  the  cold  bath  and  is  then  hung  up  by 
the  legs  to  dry  and  cool. 

COOLING. 

Whether  dry  or  wet  picked  the  body  of  the  fowl 
should  be  very  thoroughly  cooled  before  it  is  packed  for 
shipment.  If  any  animal  heat  is  left  in  the  carcass  the 
flesh  may  spoil. 

The  fowl  may  be  hung  up  in  a  cool  place  until  all 
the  body  warmth  has  escaped.  In  hot  weather  if  the 
fowls  are'  to  be  packed  in  ice  for  shipment,  they  may 
previously  be  kept  in  cold  water  until  cooled  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  and  then  in  ice-water  until 
packed. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE       181 

DEES  SING. 

Fowls  are  dressed  according  to  the  demands  of  the 
market  in  which  they  are  to  be  sold. 

The  largest  city  markets  take  the  birds  with  heads 
and  feet  on  and  undrawn.  Some  markets  require  the 
removal  of  the  heads,  in  which  case  the  skin  of  the  neck 
should  be  drawn  forward  and  neatly  tied  over  the  neck 
bones. 

Some  markets  demand  that  the  fowls  be  dry-picked, 
while  others  expect  the  fowls  to  be  scalded  before  pick- 
ing. The  American  and  French  markets  require  that 
the  fowls  be  bled.  The  English  custom  is  to  dislocate  the 
neck  where  it  joins  the  head,  the  blood  collecting  mostly 
at  the  place  of  dislocation. 

If  the  skin  of  the  fowl  should  be  torn  in  picking  it 
may  be  neatly  sewed  together  with  white  thread  to  save 
the  appearance  of  the  carcass.  Any  blood  clotted  in  the 
mouth  should  be  wiped  out. 

SHAPING. 

In  preparing  dressed  fowl  for  the  European  markets 
the  bodies  are  usually  shaped  or  pressed  into  compact 
form  by  means  of  shaping  frames  and  weights. 

If  the  breast  bone  projects  beyond  the  muscles  it 
may  be  beaten  down  by  the  use  of  a  smooth  wooden 
paddle.  The  breast  meat  may  be  worked  forward  by  the 
thumbs  and  a  plumper  appearance  given  to  a  carcass 
which  lacks  roundness.  If  further  shaping  is  deemed 
desirable  the  bird  is  placed  on  a  V  shaped  trough.  The 
back-board  of  the  trough  is  about  six  inches  wide  and 
set  vertically.  The  front-board  is  nailed  at  an  angle  a 
little  less  than  a  right  angle  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
backboard.  The  carcasses  to  be  shaped  are  taken  before 
they  cool  off  and  placed  side  by  side,  breast  down,  on  the 
front-board,  the  rear  end  of  the  body  of  each  fowl  press- 
ing against  the  back-board,  the  head  and  neck  hanging 
over  the  edge  of  the  front-board. 

A  smooth  board  four  inches  in  width  and  of  the 
same  length  as  the  trough-boards,  is  placed  on  top  of  the 


182      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

carcasses,  just  back  of  the  wings.  On  this  top-board  are 
placed  weights  sufficiently  heavy  to  press  the  fowls  com- 
pactly together. 

After  several  hours  the  bodies  become  cool  and  rigid 
and  present  a  plump,  blocky  appearance  and  all  look 
very  much  alike. 

In  France  shaping  is  accomplished  by  means  of  indi- 
vidual boards  and  linen  cloths.  A  fowl  as  soon  as  it  is 
completely  picked  is  placed,  with  wings  and  legs  foiaed 
close  to  the  body,  in  a  fine  linen  wrap  which  is  enclosed 
within  another  and  coarser  cloth.  The  outer  wrapping 
is,  by  means  of  tapes,  drawn  tightly  into  the  shape 
desired,  then  dipped  into  cold  water  and  left  for  a  day 
or  longer  in  a  cool  place.  The  result  is  a  smooth-skinned, 
plump,  attractive-looking  carcass. 

PACKING. 

Where  large  quantities  of  fowl  are  to  be  shipped  to 
market  they  may  be  packed  in  barrels.  Boxes  are  also 
used  for  this  purpose. 

The  fowls  should  be  graded  so  that  the  contents  of 
each  package  will  be  uniform  in  size,  shape  and  tint. 
If  a  box  is  used  it  should  be  of  the  right  size  to  contain 
the  carcasses  and  packing  material  without  slack  space. 
In  cool  weather  the  fowls  may  be  packed  dry  in  the 


Use  a  dry  cloth  to  remove  any  moisture  or  stains 
found  on  the  bodies.  The  case  is  lined  with  heavy  pack- 
ing paper  or  clean  rye  straw.  Lay  the  birds  in  the  box, 
two  rows  together,  on  their  sides,  those  of  each  row 
back  to  breast,  spoon  fashion,  the  legs  of  the  fowls  of 
one  row  passing  between  the  bodies  of  the  other  row,  all 
compactly  pressed  together. 

A  layer  of  bright  straw  is  placed  over  the  two  rows 
of  chickens,  then  another  layer  of  fowl,  and  over  that 
straw  enough  to  fill  the  box  full  after  the  cover  is  nailed 
on. 

If  a  barrel  is  used  and  the  weather  is  warm,  a  layer 
of  broken  ice  is  put  in  the  bottom.  On  the  ice  is  placed 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE       183 

the  first  layer  of  chickens,  next  a  few  inches  depth  of 
broken  ice,  then  layers  of  chickens  and  of  ice,  until  tae 
barrel  is  filled.  The  chickens  are  laid  with  breasts  downt 
feet  to  the  middle  of  the  'barrel  and  heads  towards  the 
staves.  Ice  is  piled  on  top  and  over  this  two  layers  of 
burlap  cloth  or  bacging  which  are  held  in  place  by  driv- 
ing the  uppermost  hoop  of  the  barrel  over  the  cloth  and 
nailing  fast. 

Every  package  should  be  plainly  marked  with  the 
address  of  the  consignee  and  also  of  the  consignor.  The 
number  of  packages  and  the  weight  of  the  chickens 
should  also  be  stated  on  each  box  or  barrel.  Advice  by 
mail  should  be  sent  before  or  at  the  time  of  shipping  to 
the  consignee. 

SHIPMENT. 

Packages  of  dressed  poultry  (and  crates  of  live  fowl 
as  well)  should  be  forwarded  in  season  to  reach  tneir 
destination  certainly  not  later  in  the  week  than  Friday 
morning. 

As  poultry  products  are  perishable  the  shipment  is 
usually  made  by  express.  There  should  be  careful  study- 
ing of  the  shipping  routes  available,  by  the  poultryman. 
Carriage  by  boat  is  usually  the  cheapest  and  best  where 
it  is  possible.  In  deciding  as  to  choice  of  route  for  snip- 
ment  consideration  should  be  given  to  rates  charged, 
care  in  handling,  promptness  in  delivering  and  fairness 
in  settling  damages,  if  such  occur. 

Finally  the  poultryman  must  look  sharply  after  the 
prompt  payment  for  his  products,  rendering  his  accounts 
to  customers  regularly  and  compelling  cash  settlement. 


184      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


S.   C.   BUFF   ORPINGTON 


Courtesy  Alf.  A.  Ziemer 


CHAPTER  IX 
Housing  and  Fencing 

CHOICE  OF  LOCATION.  The  location  is  fundamental  in 
poultry-keeping,  whether  one  building  or  many  be  con- 
structed. It  is  the  base  and  basis  of  the  business. 

A  bad  location  will  usually  wreck  the  undertaking.  A 
good  location  furnishes  the  foundation  for  building  up  a 
successful  business.  This  matter  demands  careful  con- 
sideration if  the  poultryman  would  start  right. 

Land,  buildings  and  fences  cost  money.  The  invest- 
ment is  in  the  form  of  fixed  capital,  which  is  difficult  to 
draw  out  and  altogether  too  valuable  to  be  sacrificed. 

If  the  location  be  already  fixed  by  circumstances  be- 
yond the  power  of  the  poultryman  to  change,  then  he 
should  consider  whether  it  be  possible  to  improve  the 
conditions  if  these  be  faulty  in  any  respect. 

If  the  poultry-keeper  is  so  situated  that  he  may  set 
apart  a  portion  of  a  farm  for  poultry  he  has  the  duty  of 
studying  the  different  portions  of  the  farm  as  to  their 
availability  and  adaptability  for  poultry  culture. 

If  the  prospective  poultryman  has  unrestricted  oppor- 
tunity to  choose  his  location  where  he  pleases  and  suffi- 
cient capital  to  secure  the  land  and  establish  the  poultry 
plant  he  has  the  greatest  cause  for  earnest  study  of  the 
subject  in  all  its  bearings.  He  should  neglect  no  impor- 
tant point  because  an  unsuitable  location  is  one  of  the 
worst  obstacles  to  contend  against  in  the  nmiltry  busi- 
ness. 

POINTS   IN   LOCATING. 

CONVENIENCE.  First  is  convenience,  which  \.  *Uy  sig- 
nifies economy.  Inconvenience  of  location  involves  loss 


186      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

of  time,  profitless  labor  and  constant  annoyance  of  man- 
ager and  men. 

Supplies  of  building  materials  should  be  available 
and  not  too  costly. 

The  location  should  foe  such  as  to  allow  of  the  best 
arrangement  of  the  buildings,  fences,  roads  and  paths. 

There  should  be  easy  and  direct  means  of  communi- 
cation with  a  good  public  highway. 

CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS.  'So  far  as*  possible  the  location 
should  be  free  from  extremes  of  cold  and  hot  seasons  or 
weather. 

Sudden  changes  in  the  weather,  especially  if  they 
bring  excessive  rains  and!  chilliness,  are  very  unfavorable 
to  fowls. 

The  conditions  of  the  weather  during  all  of  the  sea* 
sons>  should  be  known  and  kept  in  mind.  Summer's 
sultry  heat  in  some  sections  is  as  debilitating  as  winter's 
bitter  cold.  Severe  winds  cause  the  fowls  discomfort 
and  discourage  their  ranging  in  the  fresh  air. 

The  amount  and  direction  of  tbft  winds  and  storms 
liable  to  prevail  in  the  locality  should  receive  attention. 

The  atmospheric  drainage  should  'be  studied.  The 
air  always  contains  moisture  varying  in  degree  from  a 
slight  amount  up  to  saturation.  When  the  moist  air  is 
not  driven  by  winds  it  tends  to  form  currents  which 
move  down  the  slopes  and  then  settle  in  the  lowlands, 
valleys  and  swamps.  These  movements  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  damp  condition  take  the  same  general  direction 
as  the  water  which  after  a  rainfall  passes  over  or 
through  the  land,  seeking  the  lower  levels,  where  both 
stagnate  and  produce  unhealthy  conditions.  Heavy 
vapors  in  the  forms  of  fog  and  mist  are  especially  un- 
favorable to  the  health  of  fowls  and  are  very  conducive 
to  poultry  diseases. 

A  close,  sultry  atmosphere  is  objectionable.  A  loca- 
tion should  therefor©  be  chosen  for  the  poultry  plant 
that  is  not  so  level  or  so  enclosed  as  to  prevent  proper 
atmospheric  drainage.  If  the  place  is  somewhat  elevated 
there  will  be.  movement  of  the  moisture  of  the  air  as 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      187 

well  as  of  the  waters, of  the  land  and  hence  healthful 
conditions. 

In  northern  latitudes  slopes  to  the  south,  southeast 
and  southwest  secure  the  advantage  of  more  direct  sun- 
light in  winter  than  other  aspects. 

If  storms  and  winds  are  prevalent  in  the  locality  a 
place  should  be  sought  out  which  is  naturally  protected 
by  higher  land  and  trees  of  the  forest  or  orchard.  If 
theste  natural  windbreaks  are  lacking  the  poultrymcin 
should  ascertain  the  possibilities  for  planting  hedges  to 
the  windward  of  the  poultry  plant.  Fowls  ought  to  be 
out  of  doors  ranging  in  pleasant  weather  rather  than 
standing  still  and  moping  in  confined  quarters. 

Nearness  of  lakes  or  other  large  bodies  of  water  may 
be  an  advantage  if  the  climate  is,  by  such  influence, 
made  more  even  in  temperature.  'Sometimes,  however, 
winds  and  storms  sweep  over  these  water  levels  and 
strike  the  poultry  plant  with  especial  severity. 

Son.  AXD  DEAINAGE.  A  heavy  clay  soil  may  not  show 
its  undesirable  character  in  dry  summer  weather,  but 
if  seen  under  conditions  of  wetness  reveals  its  unfitness 
for  poultry  culture. 

The  rains  falling  upon  such  a  soil  do  not  quickly 
enter  the  land  but  tend  to  overflow  it,  to  form  gullies 
and  gradually  saturating  the  upper  layer  cause  the 
surface  to  become  muddy,  sticky  or  slippery.  Great 
discomfort  to  the  poultryman  and  his  fowls  is  liable  to 
result.  The  droppings  of  the  birds  scattered  over  the 
land  failing  to  enter  the  soil,  become  soaked  by  the 
rains  forming  a  pasty  mass  which  in  dry  weather  forms 
a  filthy  crust  over  the  surface  of  the  yards.  On  a  clay 
soil  the  sills  of  the  houses  tend  to  rot  away  and  fence 
posts  decay  rapidly.  If  snow  falls  upon  the  land  it 
sticks  and  stays  and  finally  melting  produces  very  un- 
pleasant conditions  under  foot. 

Such  soil  on  a  poultry  farm,  however,  is  usually  cap- 
able of  producing  excellent  crops  of  grass,  grain  and 
fruit. 

Clay  land  may  be  greatly  improved  for  poultry  pur- 


188      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

poses  by  tile  draining  or  by  mixinc;  sand  with  the  sur- 
face soil. 

The  conditions  are  vastly  relieved  by  making  good 
roads  and  paths  about  the  plant. 

A  sandy  loam  soil  is  most  suitaJble  for  poultry-keep- 
ing. The  rain  falling  upon  it  enters  promptly  and  per- 
colates through  the  soil  to  the  lower  layers.  The  surface 
is  always  dry  undier  foot  for  the  fowls  and  their  keeper. 
The  soil  water  is  held  by  the  loamy  part  of  the  soil  for 
the  use  of  growing  grass  or  other  crop  and  the  excess  of 
moisture  readily  drains  away. 

The  droppings  of  the  fowls  are  quickly  carried  by  the 
rain  water  into  the  soil  where  they  form  excellent  fer- 
tilizer for  feeding  any  crops  that  may  be  grown  upon 
the  land. 

The  land  for  poultry  may  be  rocky  or  have  growing 
upon  it  bushes  and  trees,  lit  need  not  be  very  fertile  but 
should  be  capable  of  producing  at  least  sufficient  grass 
or  other  succulent  crop  to  supply  the  fowls  with  green 
food. 

IWATEE  SUPPLY.  "While  stagnant  moisture  in  the  soil 
and  atmosphere  of  the  poultry  plant  are  cetainly  unde- 
sirable, a  supply  of  fresh,  pure  water  in  plenty  and 
brought  in  constant  flow  to  the  fowls  is  ideal. 

A  perennial  stream  flowing  through  the  poultry  farm 
provides  a  means  of  effective  natural  drainage  and  may 
furnish  an  excellent,  continual  and  economical  supply 
of  good  water. 

The  poultry  farmer  is  fortunate  if  he  can  secure  a 
location  having  such  a  stream.  He  should  ascertain  if 
it  is  possible  to  dam  the  waters  of  the  stream  or  connect 
with  a  spring  above  the  poultry  plant  and  by  a  system 
of  water  pipes  conduct  a  supply  to  all  parts  of  the  plant 
Dy  gravitation.  If  the  source  of  supply  is  not  sufficiently 
elevated  to  thus  furnish  a  constant  flow,  it  may  be  con 
venient  to  utilize  a  water-wheel,  wind-mill,  hydraulic 
ram,  gasoline  engine  or  alcohol  engine  for  pumping  the 
water  to  a  reservoir,  tank  or  stand-pipe.  A  system  of 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      189 

pipes  can  then  be  laid  for  carrying  the  water  to  all 
parts  of  the  plant  where  th'e  liquid  is  needed. 

It  should  be  possible  to  convey  the  waste  water  and 
sewage  by  drain-pipes  to  discharge  into  the  stream 
below  the  poultry  plant.  The  more  nearly  automatic 
the  system  of  water  supply  and  disposal  can  be  made  the 
more  desirable  is  the  location  so  far  as  this  important 
factor  is  concerned. 

NEARNESS  TO  MARKET.  Since  the  profits  of  the  poultry 
business  depend  very  much  upon  successful  sales,  the 
location  which  gives  easy  and  economical  access  to  a 
good  market  is  most  desirable.  Especially  is  this  true 
if  a  retail  route  is  to  be  supplied  with  first-class,  fresh, 
poultry  products.  Every  step  of  man  or  horse  saved 
tends  to  reduce  the  running  expenses  of  the  plant. 

Another  important  point  is  to  locate  within  easy 
reach  of  a  market  where  supplies  for  the  poultry  plant 
are  readily  and  cheaply  obtainable.  It  is  a  very  great 
advantage  to  be  able  to  load  both  ways,  carrying  poultry 
products  to  market  and  bringing  back  necessary  supplies 
on  the  same  trip. 

TRANSPORTATION  FACILITIES.  In  looking  up  a  location 
for  his  business  the  poultryman  must  not  forget  to  in- 
vestigate the  possible  means  of  conveying  his  products 
to  market.  Steamboat  lines,  railroads,  express  com- 
panies, trolley  expresses,  wagon  expresses  and  the  con- 
ditions of  the  public  highways  throughout  the  year  are 
items  in  the  problem  of  transportation.  If  competing 
lines  are  available  so  much  the  better  for  the  location. 

OWNERSHIP   OR   RENTAL   OF   THE    LAND. 

After  due  consideration  of  all  the  points  involved, 
having  selected  the  best  location  possible  the  question  of 
purchase  or  rental  may  arise. 

If  the  poultryman  has  gained  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  all  the  local  conditions  and  is  satisfied  that  the  loca- 
tion is  well  suited  to  his  purpose  he  may  well  conclude 
to  purchase  the  land. 

As  owner  he  will  be  most  interested  to  establish  a 
substantial  poultry  plant  and  to  improve  the  place  in  a 


190      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

progressive  way.  His  buildings  and  other  structures 
will  be  put  up  for  a  permanent  purpose.  He  will  seek  to 
make  the  place  attractive.  Every  step  taken  will  be 
with  the  desire  to  make  the  poultry  plant  successful. 

If  on  the  other  hand,  the  poultryman  has  not  had 
experience  in  poultry  keeping  under  the  conditions  of 
the  selected  location,  it  may  be  a  wise  plan  for  him  to 
lease  the  land  for  a  term  of  years,  with  the  privilege  of 
purchase.  The  price  and  terms  of  purchase  should  be 
stated  in  the  contract. 

If  the  location  proves  all  that  is1  desirable,  purchase 
can  then  be  made  at  convenience.  If  the  local  conditions 
are  found,  in  practice,  to  'be  unfavorable  to  the  success- 
ful conducting  of  the  business,  the  buying  of  the  land 
may  be  avoided  and  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of 
leasing  another  location  may  be  sought. 

SITUATION    OF    BUILDINGS. 

'In  selecting  sites  for  the  structures  of  a  poultry 
plant  the  points  which  have  been  considered  in  choosing 
the  location  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

The  buildings  should  be  conveniently  situated  in 
relation  to  all  the  details  of  the  plant  and  of  the  busi- 


They  should  permit  of  the  accomplishment  of  tne 
labor  of  the  plant  with  thte  greatest  possible  ease  and 
economy. 

In  places  having  an  even,  equable,  mild  climate 
buildings  for  poultry  may  be  required  only  for  keeping 
the  birds  safe  from  enemies.  Very  simple  structures 
should  fulfill  this  purpose. 

In  locations  where  the  changing  seasons  bring  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  and  violent  variations  in  the 
weather,  it  becomes  necessary  to  provide  shelter  for  the 
fowls  against  such  of  the  conditions  as  would  cause 
them  discomfort  or  endanger  their  health.  Each  building 
should  have  a  site,  if  possible,  on  land  somewhat  ele- 
vated and  certainly  well  drained.  Thorough  drainage  of 
the  land  on  which  the  house  is  to  be  situated  is  so  im- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      191 

portant  that,  if  the  soil  is  not  somewhat  sandy  and  thus 
naturally  well  drained,  it  is  well  to  select  a  site  which 
can  be  readily  drained  by  tiles. 

Advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  protection  of 
higher  land,  trees,  other  buildings,  hedges,  etc.,  to  help 
create  an  inviting  climate  within  the  houses  to  be  inhab- 
ited by  the  fowls. 

In  northern  latitudes  poultry  houses  are  usually 
placed  fronting  to  the  south,  south-east  or  south-west, 
in  order  to  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  sunlight  in  winter. 
During  the  cold  season  on  bright  days  the  first  rays  of 
the  rising  sun  should  strike  into  the  house.  The  sun, 
running  low,  shines  into  the  front  of  the  house  all  day 
and  the  last  rays  of  the  setting  sun  help  to  make  the 
interior  of  the  hens'  abode  bright  and  comfortable  at  the 
close  of  the  day. 

The  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  should  be  noted 
and  the  back  of  the  house,  if  practicable,  so  placed  that 
the  windows,  doors  and  yards  at  the  front  or  sides  shall 
receive  shelter  from  the  building  itself. 

STONEBUBN    BROODER    HOUSES. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  the  Stoneburn  brood- 
er house  plan  are  the  depressed  alley-floor  and  elevated 
chick-floor,  the  latter  being  three  and  one-half  feet  high- 
er than  the  former.  The  original  house  as  built  was 
fifteen  by  thirty  feet  in  size  with  a  four  by  five  feet 
extension  at  the  east  end,  the  latter  forming  an  entry 
so  that  the  attendant  may  pass  in  or  out  without  admit- 
mitting  draughts  of  wind  in  cold  weather. 

The  alley  way,  four  fleet  in  width,  extends  the  length 
of  the  house.  The  chick-floor  is  divided  into  six  pens 
five  feet  by  eleven  feet  in  size. 

Individual  indoor  brooders  are  used,  one  for  each 
pen.  Miss  Frances  E.  Wheeler  of  Clover  Nook  Poultry 
Farm,  Chazy,  N.  Y.,  attaches  a  strong  cord  to  the  cover 
of  each  hover,  carrying  the  cord  up  to  a  pulley  attached 
to  the  ceiling,  and  thence  out  to  the  alley.  By  pulling 
this  cord  the  cover  is  raised,  and  the  hover's  interior 


192      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

exposed  for  investigation.  Releasing  the  cord  allows 
the  cover  to  drop  into  place  on  the  hover.  Miss  Wheeler 
has  brooded  one  thousand  ducklings  in  a  house  of  this 
kind  with  a  mortality  of  only  seven  birds. 

The  elevated  chick-floor  places  the  chicks  near  the 
ceiling,  the  warmer  part  of  the  house,  reduces  the  en- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      193 

closed  air  space  and  effects  a  corresponding  saving  in 
the  amount  of  heat  required  to  maintain  a  given  tem- 
perature. 

The  lamps  of  the  several  brooders  are  easily  at- 
tended to  from  the  alley-floor  without  continual  stoop- 
ing. 


utA  Elevation.. 
STO^EBURN    BROODEE    HOUSE. 


In  the  south  side  of  the  building  are  six  windows, 
one  for  each  pen,  each  a  single  sash  with  six  panes  of 
ten  by  twelve-inch  glass.  These  windows  are  hinged  at 


194      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

the  bottom,  and  swung  inward,  being  controlled  from  the 
alley  by  cords.  At  the  west  end  of  the  alley  another 
window  of  the  same  size  is  placed.  This  lights  the  alley 
thoroughly,  which  is  very  desirable,  particularly  on 


STONEBURN    BROODER    HOUSE. 


dark,  winter  days.  Chick  doors  are  six  by  seven  inches 
in  size,  and  are  also  operated  by  cords.  The  construc- 
tion of  pen  partitions  is  so  fully  illustrated,  by  the 
cuts  that  no  further  explanation  seems  necessary.  The 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      195 

door  is  made  nearly  as  wide  as  the  alley  to  permit  the 
easy  passage  of  wheel-barrows  for  cleaning. 

Figure  One.     This  house  was  built  in  New  England 
and  was  equipped  with  Model  brooders.     Figures  two, 


/7y/ 


STOXEBURX     BROODEE    HOUSE. 


three  and  four  illustrate  a  more  ambitious  structure. 
This  was  put  up  upon  a  big  poultry  farm  in  the  western 
part  of  the  Empire  State,  and  was  used  merely  as  a 


* 

196      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 

nursery  brooder,  the  chicks  being  kept  here  a  fortnight 
or  so  and  during  that  time  not  permitted  to  get  out 
upon  the  ground.  The  house  as  built  is  sixty  by  four- 
teen feet.  The  basement  is  divided  into  two  parts  by 
a  tight  wall,  one  being  used  as  an  incubator  cellar  and 
the  other  root  cellar.  The  alleyway  is  practically  sus- 
pended in  the  cellar,  the  floor  being  high  enough  from 
the  cellar  floor  to  permit  a  row  of  incubators  being  set 
underneath. 

Figure  five  represents  a  house  building  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  idea  of  this  house  is  to  enable  one  man  to 
attend  to  a  large  number  of  birds.  It  is  designed  for 
the  production  of  broilers  in  the  winter-time  and  ducks 
in  the  spring. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    BUILDINGS. 

The  araiigement  of  buildings  should  provide  for  easy 
communication  with  the  office  or  dwelling  of  the  man- 
ager, ready  access  to  the  highway  and  direct  passage 
from  building  to  building,  without  retracing  or  wasting 
of  steps. 

The  appearance  of  the  buildings  and  of  the  poultry 
plant  as  a  whole  should  be  made  attractive  and  thus 
advertise  the  business  in  a  very  pleasing  and  effective 
way. 

Even  if  there  is  to  be  only  a  single  hen  house  on  the 
place  the  selection  of  a  suitable  site  is  worthy  of  careful 
study.  The  relation  of  the  building  to  the  dwelling 
house  and  other  buildings  of  the  estate,  the  convenience 
of  the  poultry  keeper  and  the  comfort  of  the  fowls 
should  not  be  neglected. 

If  several  or  many  buildings  are  to  be  erected  on 
the  farm  or  poultry  plant  the  choice  of  a  convenient 
central  site  for  the  headquarters  building  and  the  group- 
ing of  the  various  structures  in  relation  to  this  point 
and  to  each  other  will  demand  some  study.  A  plat  or 
plan  of  the  plant  should  be  drawn,  showing  the  bound- 
aries and  contour  of  the  area  and  also  indicating  the 
position  of  iny  streams,  trees  and  other  fixtures  that  are 
present. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      197 

Even  if  all  of  the  buildings  are  not  to  be  constructed 
at  once  the  site  for  each  should  be  selected  and  the  posi- 
tion marked  on  the  map. 

The  decision  as  to  what  buildings  and  how  many 
are  needed,  having  been  made  by  the  proprietor  whose 
capital  is  to  be  invested  in  the  plant,  their  arrangement 
is  next  to  be  settled. 

On  a  farm  some  of  the  buildings  already  erected 
may  be  utilized  for  poultry  purposes,  in  which  case  the 
arrangement  of  such  special  houses  as  are  to  be  erected 
may  be  a  very  simple  matter. 

In  establishing  plants  to  be  devoted)  exclusively  to 
the  poultry  business  the  kind  and  number  of  buildings 
required  depend  mainly  upon  the  special  line  of  produc- 
tion to  be  followed. 

In  any  case  the  arrangement  of  the  buildings  be- 
comes a  special  problem  to  be  solved  by  the  poultryman 
according  to  all  the  conditions  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion. 

If  a  central  building  is  required  for  headquarters  it 
may  include,  besides  the  office,  a  room  or  rooms  for 
sleeping  apartments  of  assistants  if  such  be  needed. 

The  basement  of  this  building  may  be  used  as  an 
incubator  room. 

The  brooder  house  should  be  situated  near  at  hand. 

A  building  may  also  be  located  quite  close  to  head- 
quarters to  include  a  feed-room,  work-shop,  killing  and 
picking  place,  packing  and  shipping  room  and  granary. 

If  a  reservoir  or  tank  for  water  is  required  it  may 
possibly  be  best  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  ihis  building. 
In  case  a  wind-mill  is  erected  it  may  be  thought  best 
to  locate  the  water-tank  in  the  frame-work  of  the  wind- 
mill tower. 

Having  located  all  of  these  structures  in  a  central 
group  the  hen-houses  may  be  arranged  in  rows  so  that 
the  attendant  in  feeding  and  caring  for  the  fowls  can 
pass  from  the  feed-house  or  room  to  one  house  or  pen 
after  another,  without  retracing  his  steps  and  end  his 
trip  where  he  began  it.  For  example  if  ten  houses  are 


198      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 


to  te  placed  they  may  stand  in  two  rows  extending  away 
from  the  feed  house.  The  attendant  passing  out  one 
row  and  back  the  other  loses  no  time  returning  on  his 
tracks. 

PARTICULAR   POINTS    AS    TO   HOUSES. 

There  are  certain  points  applicable  to  all  hen-houses. 

1.  DRAINAGE.  Never  place  a  poultry  building  in  a 
hollow  or  where  the  floor  will  be  lower  than  the  level 
of  the  land  outside. 

The  sills  should  be  sufficiently  elevated  above  the 
well  drained  site  to  allow  of  the  floor  being  placed  six 
inches,  at  least,  above  the  level  of  the  ground  about  the 
house.  If  by  any  means  water  gets  into  the  house  it  will 
then  tend  to  drain  away  and  not  settle  beneath  the 
floor. 

2  VENTILATION.  The  fowls  which  inhabit  a  poultry 
house  have  lungs  made  for  the  breathing  of  pure,  fresh 
air,  which  should  be  supplied  in  abundance,  without 
exposing  them  to  strong,  direct  drafts. 

If  the  climate  is  not  too  severely  cold  in  winter  the 
front  of  the  hen-house  may  (be  simply  covered  with  wire 
netting  (of  one  inch  or  three-quarters  inch  mesh  to 
exclude  English  sparrows.)  If  storms  are  liable  to  beat 
in  at  the  front  of  the  house,  the  wire  netting  may  be 
covered,  when  necessary,  by  frames  of  curtains  of  bur- 
lap, canvas  or  cotton  cloth.  Should  further  protection 
be  required  in  severe  winter  weather,  board  shutters 
may  be  used.  Some  of  the  shutters  should  have  windows 
so  that,  when  in  use,  the  interior  of  the  house  will  not 
be  too  much  darkened. 

Another  plan  for  the  house-front  is  to  use  frames 
covered  with  cotton  cloth  in  place  of  glass  sashes  icr 
the  windows. 

A  third  plan  is  the  straw-loft.  When  a  house  is 
tightly  built  and  has  glass  windows  this  is  an  economical 
means  of  very  effective  ventilation.  The  ceiling  of  the 
hen-house  is  constructed  of  laths,  strips  of  board,  scant- 
ling  or  poles,  placed  two  or  three  inches  apart.  Upon 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      199 

this  open  work  is  laid, a  layer,  one  to  three  feet  deep,  of 
dry  straw,  hay,  pine  boughs,  or  branches  of  deciduous 
trees  cut  in  full  leaf.  If  more  convenient  one  or  more 
layers  of  sacking,  burlap  or  cotton  cloth  may  be  laid 
upon  the  ceiling  strips.  In  each  end  of  the  loft  a  win- 
dow or  ventilator  is  provided  and  these  are  kept  open 
continually,  except,  perhaps,  in  blizzard  weather,  when 
the  ventilator  to  windward  may  be  partially  or  wholly 
closed. 

The  wind  driving  through  the  loft  from  end  to  end, 
draws  out  the  foul  air  from  the  apartments  below  and 
fresh  air  sifts  down  through  the  straw  without  creating 
strong  drafts. 

The  surplus  moisture  of  the  air  is  taken  up  by  tne 
straw  and  all  danger  of  dripping  water  or  white  frost 
on  the  interior  walls  of  the  house  is  avoided. 

A  very  sample  and  sensible  method  of  ventilating  a 
house  which  has  windows  of  two  sashes  is  to  raise  the 
lower  sash  six  inches  and  fill  the  space  below  the  sash 
with  a  board.  The  air  may  then  enter  or  pass  out  at  tne 
middle  between  the  sashes  without  direct  drafts  disturb- 
ing the  fowls. 

'If  it  is  desired  to  use  ventilating  flues  an  excellent 
plan  is  to  conduct  the  air  into  the  room  or  house  by  a 
pipe  which  passes  from  the  outside  into  the  house  near 
the  floor  and  then  extending  upward  has  its  opening 
near  the  ceiling.  The  pipe  for  conveying  out  the  foul 
air  should  start  near  the  floor  and  pass  up  through  or 
above  the  roof. 

In  case~  of  a  brooder  house  or  other  building  having 
a  chimney  or  smoke-flue,  it  is  well  to  place  one  of  the 
ventilator  pipes  close  to  the  smoke-flue.  The  air  of  the 
ventilator  pipe  becoming  warmed  must  rise  and  thus 
there  is  forced  ventilation  of  the  apartment. 

In  warm  weather  or  in  a  mild  climate  where  the 
conditions  allow,  the  hen-house  should  be  thrown  open 
to  the  free  air.  Doorways,  window  spaces  and  other 
openings,  if  need  be,  may  have  a  covering  of  wire  netting 


200      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

which  for  easy  manipulation  should  be    tacked     upon 
frames  to  be  held  in  iplace  by  hinges  or  buttons. 

llf  a  hen  house  is  close  and  unventilated  or  poorly 
aired  in  sultry  summer  weather  the  birds  should,  if  prac- 
ticable, be  allowed  to  roost  out  of  doors.  The  trees  of 
an  orchard  provide  ideal  perching  places  for  old  fowls 
or  growing  chicks  during  warm  weather. 

3.  TEMPERATURE.     By  means  of  houses  we  seek  to 
surround  the  fowls  with  an  artificial  climate  during  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  year.    If  the  severity  of  the 
winter  'be  thus  modified  and  the  conditions  made  suffi- 
ciently comfortable  the  fowls  require  less  food  to  main- 
tain body  temperature  and  continue  egg-production. 

'A  house  for  hens  should  be  sufficiently  warm  to  pre- 
vent the  freezing  of  combs  and  wattles  and  the  crusting 
of  the  drinking  water  with  ice.  The  conditions  of  humid- 
ity and  ventilation  are  closely  related  to  the  matter  01 
temperature.  Fowls  will  keep  comfortable,  thrive  and 
lay  well  in  an  atmosphere  that  is  quite  cold  if  the  air  is 
dry  or  free  from  excess  of  moisture  and  supplied  without 
strong  direct  drafts  blowing  upon  them.  A  house  with 
dry  floor  and  tight  roof,  back  and  sides  may  have  an 
open  front  and  the  fowls  do  better  than  if  kept  in  a 
close,  ill-ventilated  apartment.  During  very  cold  nights, 
when  the  birds  are  quiet  on  their  perches  a  curtain  of 
burlap  dropped  in  front  of  their  roosting  place  is  all  that 
is  needed  to  keep  them  comfortable.  In  the  day  time  they 
should  keep  warm  enough  scratching  in  straw  or  other 
litter  for  a  portion  of  their  ration^. 

4.  LIGHTING.   In  locations  where  wire  netting  is  used 
for  the  front  of  the  hen-house,  the  matter  of  lighting  the 
interior  requires  no  further  consideration.    It  is  advan- 
tageous,   however,   to   place   open    front    houses   under 
apple  trees  or   other  trees  that  shed   their  leaves   in 
autumn,  but  provide  ample  foliage  for  shade  in  summer. 

In  northern  latitudes  hen-houses  facing  southerly  are 
usually  lighted  (by  windows  in  front  but  may  well  have 
some  lighting  on  the  east  and  west  so  as  to  catch  the 
rays  of  the  rising  and  setting  sun  for  the  comfort  of  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      201 

fowls.  These  window,  spaces,  opened  wide  in  summer, 
help  to  keep  the  interior  of  the  house  cool  when  the 
weather  is  hot. 

If  glass  is  to  be  used  in  the  front  of  the  house  the 
window  space  need  not  be  large.  For  a  house  having 
pens  each  with  -a  frontage  of  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  one 
window  of  two  sashes,  each  sash  of  six  lights  of  glass 
ten  by  fourteen  inches  or  thereabouts  will  suffice.  Too 
much  glass  surface  is  to  be  avoided,  because  glass  is  an 
excellent  conductor  of  heat.  It  lets  in  the  warmth  of 
the  sun's  rays  at  noonday,  but  also  lets  out  the  warmth 
at  night,  so  that  a  house  with  its  front  entirely  of  glass 
sashes  is  much  like  a  hot-bed  at  midday  and  a  cold 
storage  room  at  night. 

5.  VERMIN.    Poultry  houses  should  be  built  so  that 
lice,  mites  and  all  other  insect  pests  may  be  kept  out  or 
if  they  enter  may  be  easily  destroyed. 

Cracks,  crannies  and  crevices  should  be  avoided  so 
far  as  possible. 

Smooth,  hard,  interior  walls  give  a  surface  that  will 
not  harbor  the  pests  and  if  they  get  upon  it  they  are 
readily  destroyed  by  spraying  with  insecticide.  Walls 
of  plaster  are  excellent  on  this  account. 

6.  RODENTS,   The  buildings  should  be  made  rat  proof, 
which  will  secure  them  against  other  animal  enemies, 
such  as  skunks,  weasels,  etc. 

One  plan  is  to  make  the  floor  of  concrete,  using  one 
part  Portland  or  other  good  hydraulic  cement  to  five 
parts  of  sharp  sand  and  gravel.  These  ingredients 
should  be  mixed  dry  very  completely,  then  with  water 
be  made  into  a  mortar,  thin  enough  to  flow  slowly  and 
thick  enough  to  stay  in  place  until  it  solidifies. 

A  smoothened,  firm  layer  of  coarse  gravel  makes  a 
good  foundation  for  the  concrete  floor.  On  this  is 
poured  three  to  four  inches  depth  of  the  mortar  which 
is  smoothed  off  and  allowed  to  set  without  being  touched 
for  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  The  surface  is  shaped  or 
graded  to  the  level  desired  for  the  floor  when  the  mortar 
is  applied.  It  may  be  well  to  make  the  floor  at  the 


202      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

center  of  the  house  or  apartment  a  little  higher  than 
towards  the  sills,  grading  the  surface  evenly  so  that  it 
will  shed  water  towards  the  outside  of  the  building. 

After  the  concrete  is  set  it  may  have  a  surface  coat- 
ing of  nearly  clear  cement  mixed  with  water,  to  give  it 
a  smooth  hard  finish. 

Another  plan  for  outwitting  the  rats  is  to  underlay  a 
board  or  dirt  floor  with  wire  netting  of  fine  mesh  or  the 
netting  may  be  placed  around  the  outside  of  the  house, 
extending  from  the  sills  vertically  down  eighteen  inches 
into  the  ground,  then  turning  horizontally  extend  six 
inches  in  the  ground  away  from  the  house. 

7.  INTERIORS.  The  arrangement  of  the  inside  of  a  hen 
house,  incubator  cellar,  brooder  house  or  other  poultry 
building  should  be  the  simplest  possible. 

The  so-called  fixtures,  even  the  partitions,  should  be 
removable. 

Inside  doors  or  gates  may  be  hung  on  double  hinges 
to  swing  both  ways  or  special  springs  may  be  attached 
to  keep  the  doors  from  being  left  ajar  when  they  should 
be  shut. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid  placing 
doors,  nests,  feed-hoppers,  etc.,  where  they  will  cause 
the  attendant  to  take  extra  and1  useless  steps  in  caring 
for  the  fowls. 

Communication  between  rooms  or  pens  in  a  large 
house  should  be  direct,  not  roundabout. 

The  entrance  and  exit  doors  of  each  house  should  be 
so  placed  that  the  poultryman  may  get  into  and  out  of 
the  house  with  the  greatest  convenience  and  economy 
of  steps. 

CONSTRUCTION    MATERIALS. 

The  poultryman  should  make  a  special  study  of  the 
available  building  materials  of  his  locality.  Lumber, 
even  at  prevailing  high  prices,  is  the  material  best 
adapted,  in  most  cases,  for  making  poultry  buildings, 
especially  if  they  are  to  be  portable  or  removable. 

In  frontier  localities,  where  forests  abound,  satisfac- 
tory hen-houses  may  even  be  made  of  logs. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      203 

Building  paper  is  much  used  for  covering  roofs  and 
sides  of  poultry  structures.  Some  kinds  require  fre- 
quent coating  with  tar  paint. 

<?lass  windows  are  mainly  employed  for  lighting,  but 
expense  may  often  be  reduced  by  using  cotton  cloth  or 
wire  netting  as  substitutes. 

Iron  hinges,  latches,  springs,  catches,  locks,  screws 
and  nails  have  their  places  in  construction. 

Concrete  (hydraulic  cement,  sand,  and  water  mixed 
to  a  mortar)  is  often  used  for  making  floors  and  may 
replace  brick,  stone  or  timber  in  building  other  parts  of 
the  houses. 

Straw  thatch  makes  a  very  comfortable  house  for 
fowls,  being  warm  in  winter,  cool  in  summer,  self  venti- 
lating, economical  and  capable  of  being  made  attractive 
in  appearance. 

Adobe  and  turf  hen-houses  are  built  in  some  locali- 
ties and  answer  the  purpose. 

In  sections  where  straw  is  abundant  and  cheap  it  may 
b*>  used  to  thickly  cover  the  back,  ends  and  roof  of  a 
framework  made  of  poles  which  has  a  front  of  wire  net- 
ting, cotton  cloth  or  boarding  and  glass  windows. 

SCRATCHING    SHED    HOUSE. 

Size  ten  feet  by  eighteen  feet;  front  wall  seven  and 
one-half  feet;  rear  wall  four  and  one-half  feet.  Mater- 
ial— frame  two  by  four  inch  siding,  matched  lumber, 
battened  or  covered  with  roofing  paper. 

Roosting  room  to  be  floored  with  boards  or  cement. 
Scratching  shed  has  a  dirt  floor. 

Roosting  room  to  be  ceiled  up  behind  and  above 
roosts.  Cloth  covered  frame  to  be  hinged  above  roosts 
and  swing  down  in  front  of  them  for  use  on  very  cold 
nights. 

Cloth  covered  opening  may  be  left  above  window 
for  ventilation,  or  if  preferred  this  cloth  can  be  placed 
in  partition  between  roosting  room  and  scratching  shed. 
Door  may  be  placed  in  same  partition  if  desired. 

Front   of   scratching  shed   is   boarded   up   eighteen 


204      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


inches  above  sill  and  poultry  wire  netting  used  above. 
Door  should  be  placed  in  front  of  scratching  shed  for 
convenience  in  cleaning  out,  etc.  Cloth  covered  frame 


Scratch  in 


Ol 

^-^  \  Wate 


Hopper .  — 


SCRATCHING    SHED    HOUSE. 

of  sufficient  size  to  close  up  entire  open  front  of  scratch- 
ing shed  should  be  hinged  to  the  plate.  This  may  be 
swung  up  against  the  roof  in  good  weather.  A  light 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      205 

weight  rope  may  be  attached  to  the  center  of  the  lower 
edge  of  the  frame  and  passed  through  a  pulley  secured 
to  the  roof  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  "east 
elevation,"  thence  out  through  an  opening  in  the  front 
of  the  scratching  shed.  By  pulling  this  rope  the  cloth 
covered  frame  can  be  raised  to  any  desired  height  and 
retained  in  that  position  by  securing  the  rope  to  some 
convenient  hook  or  ring.  It  may  be  found  advisable 
to  secure  a  brick  or  two  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  frame 
in  order  to  cause  it  to  swing  down  in  place  when  the  rope 
is  released. 

If  convenient  the  east  end  of  the  building  should 
be  used  as  the  scratching  shed.  A  single-sash  window 
placed  in  the  end  as  indicated  in  the  drawing  will  re- 
ceive the  morning  sun  and  will  also  afford  plenty  of  light 
to  permit  the  birds  to  enjoy  the  scratching  shed  when 
the  weather  is  so  bad  that  the  curtain  must  of  necessity 
be  closed. 

PLANNING    THE    BUILDINGS. 

If  all  poultrymen,  all  locations,  all  poultry  and  all  en- 
vironing conditions  were  alike  it  might  be  worth  while 
to  attempt  the  planning  of  the  best  hen-house  and  then 
all  copy  it. 

'Sifcce  these  items  are  always  different  each  case  be* 
comes  a  separate  and  special  problem  calling  for  per- 
sonal solution  by  the  poultryman  concerned,  Copies  are 
often  misfits. 

An  adapted,  attractive,  economical  structure,  con- 
venient, comfortable  and  completely  finished  and  furn- 
ished will  be  proof  positive  of  the  excellence  of  the 
poultryman's  brainwork  and  express  in  the  concrete  his 
individual  idea  of  the  fitness  of  things. 

Every  poultry  building  should  be  planned  to  fulfil  its 
definite  purpose,  be  suited  to  its  situation  and  harmonize 
with  its  surroundings. 

Having  sufficiently  studied  the  subject  it  is  well  for 
the  poultryman  to  take  paper,  pencil  and  ruler  and  either 
himself  or  by  proxy,  draw  a  plan  to  a  scale.of  the  pro- 
posed structure.  Mistakes  made  on  paper  are  more 


206      PROGRESSIVE  POULTRY    CULTURE 

readily  corrected  than  errors  occuring    in    actual    con- 
struction. 

If  buildings  for  a  large  plant  are  to  be  erected,  plans 
for  all  of  them  should  ibe  drawn  so  that  the  work  of 
construction  may  go  on  correctly  and  systematically. 

If  the  poultryman  is  particular  about  preserving  the 
plans,  use  may  be  made  of  tracing  paper  and  ink.  Blue 
prints  may  then  be  easily  obtained  for  reference  during 
the  constructing  of  the  buildings. 

In  planning  houses  to  be  occupied  by  fowls  it  is  well 
to  allow  at  least  four  square  feet  of  floor  space  or 
twenty-four  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  fowl. 

SPECIFICATIONS    AND    ESTIMATES. 

If  the  houses  are  to  be  built  by  contract  it  is  neces- 
sary, and  in  any  case  it  is  desirable,  to  draw  up  de- 
tailed specifications  of  construction  and  make  a  list  of 
the  required  materials. 

These  items  may  then  be  considered  toy  a  builder  and 
an  estimate  easily  made  of  the  cost  of  materials  and  of 
the  labor  for  consturcting  the  buildings. 

Several  bids  on  estimates  may  be  oibtained  and  com- 
pared before  contracting  for  the  construction. 

If  the  poultryman  is  his  own  carpenter  he  may 
simply  get  estimates  from  lumber  dealers  and  hardware 
stores  of  the  cost  of  materials. 

CONSTRUCTING   THE   BUILDINGS. 

The  poultryman  who  can  construct  his  own  ben- 
houses  may  save  the  investment  of  considerable  money. 
Even  if  he  only  assists  in  the  construction  work  it  will 
be  an  advantage  T>ecause  he  will  see  that  the  work  is  not 
neglected  and  may  prevent  the  occurrence  of  costly 
mistakes. 

FURNISHING    THE    HOUSES. 

The  furnishing  of  the  poultry  buildings  should  be 
made  with  the  idea  of  expediting  and  saving  work  in 
operating  the  plant. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      207 

MEADQUABTERS. 

A  good  office  desk  and  several  chairs,  perhaps  a  table 
and  possibly  a  typewriter  will  equip  the  manager's  office 
nicely. 

If  the  building  contains  sleeping  rooms  for  the 
poultrymani  or  assistants  these  are  furnished  with  beds, 
chairs,  wash-stands  etc.  according  to  their  requirements. 

FEED    HOUSE    AND    WORK    SHOP. 

Bins  for  holding  supplies  of  feeds  may  be  made  of 
hemlock  planks  or  if  made  of  other  wood  may  be 
lined  with  galvanized  iron  and  provided  with  covers  so 
that  rats  and  mice  shall  not  take  toll.  If  these  storage 
bins  are  placed  in  the  upper  story,  metal  or  wooden 
shutes  may  be  made  to  conduct  the  feed  stuffs  from  bins 
to  feed  room  as  this  saves  labor.  Tight  strong  barrels, 
fitted  with  close  covers  will  answer  for  the  storage  of 
feed  stuffs  for  a  small  flock  of  fowls. 

In  the  feed  room  an  iron  or  wooden  trough  will  be 
handy  for  use  in  mixing  dry  feeds  for  the  hoppers  or 
wet  crashes  if  these  are  fed  to  the  fowls. 

A  set  boiler  will  be  useful  for  heating  water,  boiling 
vegetables,  etc. 

Buckets,  shovels,  etc.,  should  be  at  hand  and  each 
have' a  place  of  its  own,  in  which  to  keep  it  when  not  in 
actual  use. 

The  work  room  may  have  a  complete  outfit  of  carpen- 
ter tools  and  a  cabinet  in  which  to  keep  them. 

Benches,  vices  and  other  appliances  for  use  in  work- 
ing wood  and  iron  will  be  provided  according  to  the 
purpose  of  the  poultryman. 

A  tool-room  may  well  be  set  apart  in  this  building 
and  furnished  with  shovels,  hoes,  rakes,  hand  or  horse 
cultivator  and  any  other  implements  desired  for  use  in 
caring  for  the  poultry  plant. 

INCUBATOR  CELLAR.  The  furnishings  for  the  room  or 
house  to  be  devoted  to  artificial  hatching  will  include  an 
outfit  of  incubators,  an  egg  tester,  a  table  and  a  chair. 
The  tank  for  oil  to  supply  the  incubator  lamps  should 


208      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

be  kept  outside  of  the  incubating  apartment  for  safety. 
One  or  more  thermometers  may  be  hung  on  the  walls. 
An  hygrometer  may  be  kept  on  hand  for  determining  the 
humidity  of  the  air  in  the  room. 

For  protection  against  danger  of  fire  a  series  of  iron 
pipes  may  be  placed  near  the  ceiling,  connected  with  tne 
n,ain  water  supply  and  provided  with  automatic  fire  ex- 
tinguisher heads,  one  over  each  incubator  lamp. 

SITTING  HOUSE.  Hf  natural  hatching  is  followed  the 
sitting  hens  should  have  a  house  or  room  by  themselves 
provided  with  nests,  water-fount,  feed-hopper  and  dust- 
ing place. 

The  nests  may  be  made  upon  a  dirt  floor  and  over 
each  a  bottomless  box  be  placed  which  has  a  slatted  door 
for  use  in  confining  the  hen  upon  the  nest  when  neces- 
sary. 

BBOODEB  HOUSE.  The  chief  furnishing  of  a  brooder 
house  is  a  good  heating  apparatus,  so  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  interior  may  be  absolutely  under  control.  A 
coal  bin  should  be  made  for  holding  the  supply  of  fuel. 

'If  a  cold  house  is  used  then  brooders  heated  by  lamps 
may  be  provided. 

Thermometers  should  be  supplied.  Water  fountains, 
feed-hoppers  and'  grit-boxes  are  to  be  furnished  in  suffi- 
cient numbers. 

HEN  HOUSES.  Each  house  or  apartment  devoted  to  the 
sheltering  of  the  fowls  will  require  to  be  furnished  with 
perches  and  may  have  a  platform  placed  beneath  the 
perches.  These  and  all  other  furnishings  should  be  made 
removable.  Scantlings  two  by  three  inches,  laid  wide 
side  down  and  upper  edges  rounded,  make  excellent 
perches. 

Nests  are  easily  provided  by  using  empty  orange 
boxes  or  egg-crates. 

Feed  hoppers  of  metal  or  wood  may  T>e  hung  against 
the  wall  of  the  room. 

Wasting  of  food  by  the  hens  is  prevented  by  facing 
the  feed-boxes  with  wire  screening. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      209 

Water  fountains  should  be  raised  above  the  fioor  suffi- 
ciently to  prevent  the  liquid  becoming  fouled  by  litter 
or  dirt  flirted  about  by  the  scratching  of  the  fowls. 

A  cockerel  cage  may  be  hung  in  a  room  or  pen  where 
fowls  are  kept.  It  will  be  of  use  in  confining  a  surplus 
male  bird  or  curing  a  hen  of  broodiness. 

A  frame  or  curtain  of  burlap  or  cotton  cloth  for  use 
in  front  of  the  roosting  place  is  provided,  if  special  pro- 
tection from  freezing  is  required. 

RANGES    AND    BUNS. 

Houses  are  for  fowls  to  stay  in  only  when  they  are 
not  better  off  out  of  doors. 

Any  plan  which  gives  the  fowls  the  freedom  of  the 
fields  is  excellent,  provided  they  are  safe  from  enemies, 
cannot  get  to  decomposing  d^ad  animals,  or  other  dan- 
gerous diet  and  do  not  trespass  in  places  where  they  are 
not  wanted. 

If  free  range  on  the  farm  includes  grass  land,  tillage 
and  woodland  or  orchard  the  conditions  are  especially 
favorable  for  the  fowls.  Under  such  conditions  the 
birds,  for  the  most  part,  take  care  of  themselves,  obtain 
much  of  their  sustenance  from  natural  sources  and,  in 
their  efforts  to  get  food,  take  exercise  which  tends  to 
keep  them  healthy,  hardy  and  full  of  vigor. 


To  permit  of  free  ranging  in  mild  weather,  and  yet 
prevent  the  fowls  roaming  where  their  presence  would 
be  objectionable,  a  large  area  may  be  enclosed  by  fenc- 
ing, thus  forming  a  park. 

Within  such  an  enclosure  there  is  practically  no  re- 
straint, since  the  birds  wander  as  widely  as  they  care  to. 

If  shelter  is  required  in  a  park  it  is  readily  provided 
by  constructing  simple  thatched  or  rustic  structures  in 
secluded  spots  or  erecting  small  houses  to  harmonize 
with  their  surroundings. 

POULTRY    YARDS. 

The  word  yard   comes   from  an   Anglo-Saxon   word 


210      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

which  means  a  hedge  and  hence  an  enclosed  area  usually 
of  small  size  and  adjacent  to  a  building. 

Domestic  fowl  adapt  themselves  to  the  conditions  in 
which  they  find  themselves  and  often  thrive  wonderfully 
well  under  circumstances  that  are  not  usually  con- 
sidered altogether  favorable. 

When  the  birds  are  very  much  confined  they  require 
more  attention  from  the  poultry  man. 

To  save  this  extra  work  and  care  is  advisable.  There- 
fore, where  practicable,  the  enclosure  should  include  as 
many  as  possible  of  the  naturally  favorable  conditions 
of  free  range  or  substitutes  for  the  same. 

SIZE  OF  YARD.  If  abundant  space  is  available  and  the 
expense  of  fencing  is  not  excessive  the  yard  may  well 
approach  the  size  of  a  poultry  park. 

If,  however,  the  area  at  disposal  is  restricted,  the 
yard  room  may  be  diminished  accordingly. 

The  Asiatic  breeds  of  poultry  will  submit  to  sman- 
ness  of  space  more  readily  than  the  American  varieties. 
The  Mediterraneans,  especially  the  lively  Leghorns,  re- 
quire large  yards  if  they  are  to  be  kept  from  becoming 
discontented. 

Close  confinement  tends  to  either  uneasiness  or 
moping,  both  of  which  conditions  are  unfavorable  to  the 
successful  keeping  of  fowls.  Overcrowding  the  yard 
tends  to  conditions  of  unhealthfulness. 

To  keep  the  yardsi  clean  and  healthful  there  is  noth- 
ing better  than  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil. 

Fresh  turned  loam  has  great  powers  of  absorption 
and  will  promptly  deodorize  the  droppings  that  are  cov- 
ered by  it. 

Raking  and  spading  by  hand  or  cultivating  by  horse 
power  will  make  a  yard  very  fresh  and  clean. 

If  the  ground  is  kept  mellow  the  fowls  will  usually 
do  much  of  the  necessary  stirring  of  the  soil  by  scratch- 
ing. 

iScattering  straw,  hay,  or  leaves  in  the  yard  and 
throwing  small  grains  into  it  will  give  the  birds  an 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      211 

incentive  to  exercise  and  help  to  prevent  their  becoming 
sluggish,  even  when  kept  in  small  enclosures. 

The  smaller  the  flock  the  larger  should  be  the  ground 
space  per  head,  since  each  fowl  has  the  run  of  the  whole 
yard,  be  it  small  or  large. 

One  hundred  to  two  hundred  square  feet  of  ground 
may  well  be  allowed  per  fowl  when  kept  in  flocks  of  fifty. 

SITUATION  AND  SHAPE  OF  YARDS.  The  poultryman  may 
be  obliged  to  locate  and  shape  his  hen-yards  according  to 
boundary  or  division  lines  already  fixed. 

Use  should  be  made  of  established  fences  if  they  are 
suitable  for  keeping  the  fowls  enclosed. 

If  the  poultryman  has  his  choice  as  to  shape  of  yards 
he  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  a  square  area  calls 
for  the  least  length  for  fencing  of  any  shape  bounded 
by  straight  lines. 

If  yards  are  to  be  provided  for  a  row  of  houses  or  a 
series  of  pens  in  a  long  house  they  may  be  of  quadri- 
lateral form  and  contiguous. 

The  prevailing  winds  of  the  cold  season  should  be 
considered  and  the  yard  located  to  the  leeward  of  tne 
hen-house  if  practicable. 

The  yards  should  not  extend  in  front  of  the  entrance 
and  exit  doors  of  the  hen  houses  or  be  placed  so  that  the 
attendant  must  pass  through  the  yards  to  get  to  and 
from  the  houses. 

ABBANGEMENT  OF  YARDS.  It  is  well  to  divide  the  yard 
space  available  for  each  flock  into  two  or  three  enclos- 
ures, alternating  their  use  between  the  fowls  and  the 
growing  of  crops  for  their  food. 

One  plan  is  to  place  a  double  or  triple  yard  in  front 
of  the  house,  the  enclosures  being  of  equal  size  and 
extending  away  from  the  house,  side  by  side. 

Another  plan  is  to  have  two  yards  in  front  of  the 
house  and  beyond  these  a  third  yard,  kept  preferably  for 
grass,  clover  or  alfalfa. 

An  arrangement  for  northern  latitudes  that  allows 
for  changing  the  runs  according  to  the  season  is  to  locate 


212      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

one  yard  to  the  south  of  the  house  and  another  to  the 
north. 

In  arranging  the  yards  the  matter  of  their  future 
cultivation  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

PIANO    BOX    POULTRY    HOUSES. 

These  drawings  are  based  upon  piano  boxes  of  the 
following  dimensions:  Height  four  feet,  six  inches; 
length  five  feet,  ten  inches;  width  at  top  twenty-two 
inches;  width  at  bottom  thirty-two  inches. 

Figure  1  shows  the  plan  of  construction  of  a  six 
feet  by  eight  feet  poultry  house,  made  from  two  piano 
boxes  of  the  above  size.  The  first  step  is  to  secure 
floor  timbers  which  should  be  laid  as  indicated  in  the 
drawing.  The  boxes  with  the  backs  and  tops  removed 
should  then  be  set  in  position  (leaving  approximately 
the  width  of  one  box  between  them),  and  securely  nailed 
to  the  floor  timbers.  The  floor  should  then  be  completed 
by  filling  the  vacant  space  with  some  of  the  boards  which 
have  previously  been  removed  from  the  tops  and  backs 
of  the  boxes.  The  next  step  is  to  nail  in  the  rest  of  the 
frame  as  indicated  by  the  solid  lines  in  the  drawing. 
One  inch  by  two  inch  strips  serve  this  purpose  admir- 
ably. When  nailed  as  indicated  in  the  drawing  they 
stiffen  the  whole  structure  so  that  it  can  be  moved  with- 
out being  badly  racked. 

After  this  frame  is  completed  the  ends  can  be  board- 
ed up,  leaving  the  necessary  openings  for  door,  window, 
ventilator,  etc. 

Finally  the  roof  should  be  completed.  The  pitch 
in  the  center  of  the  roof  (note  figure  2,  elevation)  is 
most  easily  secured  as  follows:  Ten  inch  or  twelve 
inch  boards  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  from  shoulder 
to  shoulder  of  the  boxes,  sawed  as  indicated,  and  at- 
tached at  each  end  of  the  structure.  Upon  these  boards 
the  roof  boards  are  nailed.  The  whole  structure  should 
then  be  covered  with  some  good  roofing  paper. 

In  figure  2  is  indicated  the  cloth  covered  opening 
for  ventilation. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      213 


Figure  3  shows  -x>n  a  reduced  scale  an  eight  feet 
by  twelve  feet  scratching  shed  house  made  of  four 
piano  boxes.  For  convenience  in  handling  this  should 


PIANO   BOX    POULTRY    HOUSE. 


be  built  in  the  form  of  two  six  feet  by  eight  feet  struc- 
tures and  after  completion  the  two  are  set  together  in 


214      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

position  as  indicated.  In  the  spring  when  the  breed- 
ing stock  no  longer  requires  quarters  in  addition  to  the 
roosting  room,  the  scratching  shed  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage as  a  brooder  house  or  colony  house. 

Each  of  the  two  parts  should  have  a  full  sized  door 
in  one  end. 

In  addition  to  the  extra  lumber  secured  from  the 
tops  and  backs  of  the  boxes,  a  small  amount  may  be  re- 
quired to  finish  the  structure  and  its  interior  fittings. 

FEXCING. 

MATERIALS.  Fences  for  poultry  yards  may  be  made  of 
pickets,  laths  or  narrow  strips  of  boards,  nailed  upon  a 
frame  of  scantling. 

If  the  strips  are  placed  obliquely  rather  than  verti- 
cally, upon  the  horizontal  bars  and  a  second  layer  of 
strips  nailed  over  the  first  at  any  desired  angle,  an 
attractive  lattice  is  formed.  By  running  vines  over  the 
lattice  work  its  appearance  may  be  further  improved. 

Common  wire  poultry  netting,  one  inch  mesih  for 
chicks,  two  inch  mesh  for  bantams,  and  two  or  three 
inch  mesh  for  the  larger  breeds  of  fowl,  is  very  com- 
monly employed  for  making  fences.  This  material  is 
difficult  to  stretch  straight  and  to  keep  from  bulging  or 
warping,  after  it  is  in  place.  The  posts  for  such  fencing 
require  to  be  placed  rather  near  together.  Eight  to  ten 
feet  apart  will  answer. 

Boards  are  often  used  for  the  base  of  such  a  fence; 
especially  where  it  divides  adjoining  yards  containing 
male  birds  that  are  inclined  to  quarrel.  If  they  try  to 
fight  through  wire  netting  they  are  very  likely  to  muti- 
late their  combs  or  wattles  on  the  fine  wires.  Netting 
of  one  inch  mesh  may  be  used  for  the  lower  two  feet  of 
the  fence  if  it  is  more  convenient  or  economical  than 
boarding. 

Woven  wire  fencing  made  with  the  meshes  small  at 
the  lower  part  and  increasing  in  size  towards  the  top  is 
extensively  used.  It  requires  fewer  posts  than  the  poul- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      215 

try  netting.    Usually,  it  is  safe  to  place  the  posts  a  rod 
(sixteen  and  one-half  feet)  apart. 

Posts  for  permanent  fences  may  be  of  cedar,  oak, 
chestnut,  catalpa  or  any  wood  that  is  tough  and  durable. 

Iron  piping  or  concrete  shafts  may  be  employed  for 
posts  in  locations  where  suitable  timber  is  either  very 
scarce  or  excessively  costly. 

ERECTING  WIBE  FENCES.  Manufacturers  of  standard 
woven  wire  fencing  usually  supply  printed  directions  for 
putting  up  the  fences,  but  a  few  points  may  be  men- 
tioned that  are  particularly  pertinent. 

Wasting  of  the  posts,  if  they  are  of  timber,  or  even 
of  iron,  occurs  principally  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
where  alternate  wetting  and  drying  promote  decay  of  the 
wood  or  rusting  of  the  metal. 

This  part  of  the  wooden  post  may  be  rendered  less 
liable  to  weakening  by  charring  with  fire,  coating  with 
hot  tar  or  saturating  with  a  solution  of  copperas.  Iron 
posts  may  be  coated  with  tar  or  water-proof  paint. 

Wooden  posts  for  the  corner  of  the  fence  may  be 
eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter.  Intervening  posts  need 
not  exceed  six  inches  in  diameter,  especially  if  the  fence 
is  to  be  erected  in  a  straight  line. 

The  corner  posts  should  be  set  at  least  four  feet  in 
the  ground  and  braced  by  poles  extending  from  near 
their  tops  to  the  ground  at  the  next  post  in  line.  The 
intermediate  posts  may  be  set  three  feet  in  the  ground. 
A  post-hole  digger  is  most  useful  in  excavating  the 
holes  unless  the  ground  is  exceedingly  solid  or  stony.  A 
long-handled,  round-pointed  shovel  and  an  iron  bar  are 
also  useful  tools. 

A  special  fence  stretcher,  obtainable  of  the  dealer  in 
woven  fences,  will  be  a  great  help  in  drawing  the  fenc- 
ing into  place. 

Galvanized  wire  staples  are  used  to  fasten  the  wires 
to  the  posts. 

The  fencing  comes  in  rolls  of  different  widths  and 
thus  determines  the  height  of  the  fence.  For  fowls  of 


216      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

the  heavy  breeds,  if  accustomed  to  being  yarded,  a  height 
of  three  feet  will  suffice. 

Mlore  active  birds,  unless  they  have  been  on  free 
range  previously,  will  stay  within  yards  fenced  five  feet 
high. 

If  fowls  fly  over  fencing  six  feet  high,  it  may  be  best 
to  confine  them  in  covered  runs. 

The  posts  being  in  position  and  the  soil  solidly 
tamped  around  them  the  end  of  a  roll  of  fencing  is 
attached  to  an  end  post  and  the  woven  wire  unrolled 
along  the  line  of  posts.  Two  workmen  are  sufficient  for 
the  task  of  stretching  and  stapling  the  fence. 

The  stretcher  or  a  lever  is  used  to  draw  the  fencing 
taut  and  it  is  fastened  by  the  main  horizontal  wires  to 
the  successive  posts. 

The  lower  edge  of  the  fencing  should  follow  the 
grade  of  the  ground. 

Sometimes  it  is  desired  to  erect  a  temporary  wire 
fence.  In  such  case  posts  may  be  used  that  are  not  over 
four  inches  in  diameter.  These  are  sharpened  at  one 
end  and  driven  like  stakes  into  the  ground.  The  woven 
wire  is  stretched  and  attached  to  the  posts  by  staples 
as  in  the  case  of  the  permanent  fence. 

In  removing  the  fence,  the  staples  are  first  drawn, 
then  the  woven  wire  is  rolled  up  and  the  posts  are  pulled 
out.  These  materials  are  stored  in  safety  for  future  use. 

APPLIANCES    FOR    HATCHING    AND    REARING    CHICKS. 

Figure  1  is  elevation  and  figure  2  is  section  of 
home  made  brooder. 

This  brooder  has  been  used  for  years  very  success- 
fully by  one  of  the  largest  commercial  poultrymeen  of 
Connecticut.  It  is  built  as  follows:  The  box  for  the 
lamp  is  three  feet  square  and  ten  inches  in  depth.  Upon 
this  is  nailed  a  galvanized  iron  top,  covering  the  entire 
box.  Above  this  latter,  around  the  four  sides  are  nailed 
strips  one  inch  in  thickness  and  upon  these  is  nailed 
the  floor  of  the  brooder.  The  inch  strip  mentioned  above 
should  have  a  one  inch  hole  cut  out  on  each  side.  This 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      217 


admits  air  between  the  galvanized  iron  and  the  floor  of 
the  brooder  which  is  warmed  without  any  admixture  of 
lamp  fumes  by  the  lamp  underneath  the  sheet  of  galvan- 
ized iron.  This  warm  air  then  passes  up  through  an 


APPLIANCES    FOB    HATCHING    AND    REARING    CHICKS. 

opening  in  the  floor  into  the  drum  and  thence  out  into 
the  hover. 

The  hole  mentioned  above  is  in  the  center  of  the 
floor  and  is  eight  inches  in  diameter.    Over  this  is  tacked 


218      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

deep.  The  sides  of  this  pan  should  be  punched  full  of 
nail  holes,  the  punching  being  done  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  rough  edges  of  the  tin  will  project  into  the  pan. 
It  is  through  these  openings  that  the  warm  air  passes 
out  under  the  hover. 

The  hover  should  be  made  of  thin  matched  lumber 
two  and  one-half  feet  square  resting  upon  legs  four  and 
one-half  to  five  inches  in  height.  Around  the  entire 
edge  should  be  tacked  a  felt  curtain  slashed  at  frequent 
intervals  from  top  to  bottom. 

The  hover  chamber  may  be  formed  of  six  inch 
boards  nailed  together  and  set  on  the  floor  of  the  brood- 
er. If  the  weather  is  cold  or  the  brooder  is  placed  in 
an  exposed  position,  a  window  sash  may  be  laid  upon  the 
top  to  retain  the  heat  in  the  hover  chamber. 

After  the  chicks  have  reached  an  age  when  they  may 
be  permitted  to  run  on  the  floor  of  the  brooder  house, 
one  of  the  six  inch  boards  forming  the  sides  of  the  hover 
chamber  may  be  removed,  thus  letting  the  chicks  go 
in  and  out  at  will. 

If  the  builder  so  desires  he  can  make  the  side  of  the 
hover  chamber  permanent,  inserting  glass  and  a  door, 
and  hinge  a  tight  cover  on  the  top. 

Sufficient  ventilation  both  for  the  lamp  chamber  and 
hover  chamber  must  be  provided. 

This  brooder  is  intended  solely  for  indoor  use. 
It  is  simple  to  construct,  inexpensive,  and  has  given 
excellent  satisfaction  upon  many  practical  farms. 

Figure  3  represents  floor  elevation,  figure  4  side 
elevation,  figure  5  rear  elevation  of  a  brood  coop. 

This  is  twenty-four  inches  by  thirty  inches  in  size, 
and  twenty  inches  in  height  at  the  peak.  The  side  walls 
are  six  inches  in  height.  If  carefully  built  of  matched 
lumber  such  a  coop  will  last  for  years  and  give  excellent 
satisfaction.  The  front  is  equipped  with  a  good  sized 
door  and  the  rear  has  a  small  pane  of  glass  inserted. 
The  floor  is  arranged  so  that  it  may  be  pulled  out  at 
the  rear  of  the  coop  for  convenience  in  cleaning.  It 
slides  upon  cleats  tacked  to  the  side  walls.  Ventila- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      219 

tion  is  provided  by  ,holes  bored  through  each  end  as 
indicated  in  the  drawing. 

Figure  6  represents  the  end  elevation,  and  figure 
7  the  side  elevation  of  a  lath  run  to  be  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  above  described  coop.  This  is  twenty-two 
inches  in  height,  forty-four  inches  in  width,  and  forty- 
eight  inches  in  length.  The  open  end  should  be  set 
against  the  front  of  the  coop.  When  the  door  t>f  the 
latter  is  fastened  open  the  hen  has  the  advantage  of  this 
rim  where  she  can  better  care  for  the  chicks  than  if 
confined  entirely  to  the  small  coop.  Pieces  of  board  may 
be  leaned  against  the  side  of  run  or  old  bags  thrown 
upon  it  to  furnish  shade  when  needed. 

Figure  8  shows  section,  figure  9  elevation,  figure 
10  plan  of  set  of  nests  and  runs  for  sitting  hens.  This 
is  made  four  feet  by  six  feet  in  size,  the  runs  being 
sixteen  inches  in  height,  and  the  nests  twenty-two  inches 
at  the  front  and  sixteen  inches  at  the  rear.  Every  nest 
is  approximately  sixteen  inches  square  and  the  arrange- 
ment gives  each  hen  a  nest  of  this  size  and  a  run  that 
is  approximately  sixteen  inches  in  width  and  four  and 
one-half  feet  in  length.  The  front  of  each  nest  is 
equipped  with  a  door  hinged  at  the  top.  After  the  hens 
have  become  accustomed  to  the  quarters  these  doors 
may  ordinarily  be  left  open  and  the  hen  permitted  to 
exercise  or  remain  upon  the  nest  as  she  sees  fit.  Food 
and  water  should  be  supplied  daily.  The  roof  of  the 
nests  should  be  hinged  in  front  and  swung  upwards 
to  permit  the  attendant  to  care  for  the  birds.  Such  an 
arrangement  being  almost  automatic,  can  be  used  to 
excellent  advantage  upon  a  farm  where  many  birds  are 
set  each  year,  as  it  greatly  reduces  the  task  of  caring 
for  them. 

GATES. 

Bach  yard  should  have  gates  sufficient  for  easy  en- 
trance or  exit  and  so  placed  as  to  be  convenient. 

For  the  wire  fences,  gates  are  manufactured  having 
a  frame  work  of  iron  rods  covered  with  woven  wire, 


220      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

similar  to  the  fencing.  A  frame  may  be  made  of  iron 
water-piping  and  covered  with  wire  netting  or  woven 
fencing. 

Common  gates  made  of  lumber  and  covered  with 
poultry  netting  will  answer  if  they  are  well  braced  to 
prevent  sagging. 

All  gates  should  be  hung  to  firm,  well  set  posts  by 
strong  hinges  and  be  provided  with  latches  and  hooks 
for  fastening  in  place,  eittier  open  or  shut. 

SHADE  FOR  YARDS.  Trees  furnish  the  best  of  shade  for 
poultry  yards. 

Fruit  trees  answer  the  purpose  nicely.  Deciduous 
trees  provide  shade  in  summer,  and,  dropping  their 
leaves  for  winter,  permit  the  sunshine  to  strike  past 
their  limbs  in  cold  weather. 

Evergreen  trees  planted  in  hedges  for  wind-breaks 
for  winter  also  furnish  a  dense  and  cooling  shade  in  hot 
weather. 

Artificial  appliances  for  providing  shaded  spots  in 
the  yards  include  covers  made  of  the  branches  of  trees 
cut  in  full  foliage,  frames  of  burlap,  sacking  or  cotton 
cloth,  shutters  made  of  slats,  frames  of  wire  netting  or 
laths  covered  with  straw  or  hay,  etc. 

CULTIVATION  AND  CROPPING.  Crops  for  shade,  shelter 
or  food  may  be  grown  in  the  yards  if  the  arrangement 
of  double  or  triple  enclosures  is  adopted.  Indian  corn, 
sunflowers,  castor  bean,  all  provide  a  generous  shade 
when  they  have  attained  considerable  growth. 

One  of  the  yards  may  be  devoted  permanently  to'  as- 
apragus,  raspberries,  blackberries  or  grapes  and  the 
fowls  allowed  in  it  when  they  will  be  benefitted  and 
cause  no  injury  to  the  crops. 

It  is  well  to  keep  at  least  a  portion  of  the  yard 
space  in  grass  or  growing  grain  to  provide  green  food 
for  the  flock. 

In  the  double  yard  plan  one  of  the  enclosures  is 
plowed  early  in  spring  and  oats  are  sown.  After  the 
grain  is  six  inches  high  the  fowls  are  turned  upon  It. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      221 

The  other  yard  is,  plowed  or  harrowed  and  sown  to 
oats  or  millet. 

When  the  crop  in  the  second  yard)  is  ready  for  the 
fowls,  the  first  yard  is  again  cultivated  and  sown  with 
millet. 

In  early  autumn  the  second  yard  is  plowed  or  har- 
rowed and  sown  to  barley. 

Later  the  first *yard  is  plowed  and  sown  to  rye  or  win- 
ter wheat. 

In  localities  where  alfalfa,  cow  peas  and!  soy  beans 
can  be  grown,  they  make  excellent  crops  for  feeding  to 
fowls. 

If  the  triple-yard  plan  is  followed  one  of  the  enclos* 
ures  may  be  used  throughout  the  season  for  producing 
crops  of  cabbage  or  mangolds,  to  be  used  as  green  food 
in  the  winter  time.  This  yard  is  used  for  the  fowls  to 
run  in  the  next  year. 

By  systematic  rotation  in  cropping  the  yards  they  are 
kept  in  cleanly,  healthful,  inviting  condition  and  at  the 
same  time  valuable  crops  are  secured  for  the  fowls  or 
their  keeper. 


Pioneer  LOR  House  in  Black  Hills.  So.  Dakota.    Used  as  a  School 
House,  as  a  Dwelling,  and  now  a  Hen  House 


CHAPTER  X 
Exhibiting,   Scoring,  Judging 

I.      EXHIBITING. 

One  of  the  most  fascinating  and  popular  lines  of 
poultry  culture  is  that  of  breeding,  growing  and  exhib- 
iting pure  bred  or  fancy  fowls. 

The  poultry  fancier,  although  his  flock,  oftimes, 
may  be  small,  is  usually  intensely  interested  in  progres- 
sive poultry  keeping.  He  seeks  to  produce  the  best  in 
quality  according  to  the  standard  which  he  has  set 
before  him. 

Naturally,  if  successful,  he  takes  pride  in  the  results 
of  his  efforts  and  desires  to  know  how  his  best  birds 
compare  with  those  of  other  fanciers. 

The  poultry  show  is  a  convenient  and  suitable  place 
for  deciding  the  relative  standing  of  the  birds  according 
to  the  standard  for  each  variety. 

The  poultry  show  also  offers  opportunity  for  determ- 
ining the  defects  of  the  birds  by  experts. 

Here,  too,  the  fancier  may  study  the  particular 
points  of  birds  of  different  strains  or  families  of  his 
chos'en  variety. 

If  the  fancier  exhibits  superior  stock,  and  especially 
if  the  birds  win  important  prizes,  the  process  proves  to 
be  an  excellent  means  of  advertisement.  Even  if  the 
prizes  received  only  partially  cover  the  expenses  of  ex- 
hibiting, the  resultant  sales  of  stock  and  eggs  often 
bring  very  satisfactory  pecuniary  profit. 

Poultry  exhibitions  have  become  very  popular  and 
attract  multitudes  of  people  who  admire  beautiful  fowls. 
Many  patrons  of  the  shows  become  purchasers  of  pure- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      223 

bred  stock  or  eggs  for  hatching  from  exhibitors  whose 
birds  prove  prize-winners  or  please  their  fancy. 

THE  EXHIBITOR'S  EDUCATING. 

In  preparing  for  successful  exhibiting  of  his  fowls, 
the  fancier  may  well  subject  himself  to  a  systematic 
training. 

If  he  intends  to  take  a  thorough  course,  his  text- 
book will  be  the  Standard  of  Perfection;  if  a  short 
course  only,  he  may  use  the  standard  of  his  selected  var- 
iety of  fowl.  He  studies  the  points  of  perfection,  learns 
the  disqualifications  and  defects  relative  to  his  breed  of 
birds,  informs  himself  as  to  the  technical  terms  em- 
ployed, and  begins  promptly  to  apply  the  knowledge 
gained. 

His  fowls  become  original  and  effective  object  les- 
sons, deserving  of  much  careful  study.  His  own  hen- 
house makes  an  ideal  poultry  laboratory  for  research 
and  practice,  where  he  can  learn  at  first,  hand. 

He  will  do  well  to  join  a  class  of  fellow  fanciers  by 
securing  membership  in  the  specialty  club  which  is 
devoted  to  the  advancement  of  his  chosen  breed  or  var- 
iety of  poultry. 

He  should  also  join  the  local  poultry  club,  or  aid 
in  forming  and  maintaining  such  an  association  for  the 
purposes  of  exhibiting  fowls,  holding  meetings  for  the 
discussion  of  poultry  subjects,  securing  lectures  by  poul- 
try experts  and  advancing  poultry  culture  in  every 
practicable  way. 

He  will  doubtless  find  opportunity  awaiting  him  to 
help  as  volunteer,  assistant  or  officer  in  the  management 
of  the  local  poultry  show. 

This  experience  will  give  him  a  liberal  education  in 
the  exhibition  branch  of  poultry  culture. 

Acting  as  assistant  to  a  poultry  judge  in  scoring  the 
birds  or  deciding  the  awards  of  prizes  will  give  him  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  inside  workngs  of  the  under- 
takin 

find  further  opportunity  to  learn  in  conver- 


224      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

sations  and  conferences  with  poultry  specialists,  who  are 
usually  very  ready  to  impart  information  to  the  inter- 
ested poultryman. 

•Much  valuable  information  is  also  obtained  from 
the  best  poultry  books  andi  periodicals  and  from  federal 
and  state  reports  and  bulletins  treating  of  pure-bred 
fowl®  and  the  keeping  of  poultry. 

Thus  by  selfjdirected,  earnest  study,  by  personal 
management  of  his  flocks  and  by  association  work,  the 
fancier  becomes  educated,  experienced  and  expert  in  his 
line  of  Doultry  culture. 

Not  the  least  encouraging  feature  of  this  plan  is 
that,  while  learning  himself,  the  fancier  is  also  helping 
to  teach  others  and  is  aiding  in  the  advancement  of  the 
poultry  calling, 

FORE-WORK    FOR  THE  FANCIER. 

The  foundation  for  success  with  exhibition  fowls  is 
well  laid  when  the  fancier  selects  the  best  possible  stock 
and  correctly  mates  the  birds  according  to  the  steadfast 
principles  and  sensible  practices  of  breeding. 

The  proper  feeding  and  management  of  the  stock, 
the  scrupulous-  care  of  the  fertile  eggsi  and  their  skillful 
incubating  all  have  large  influence  upon  the  final  results 
in  the  show-room. 

After  the  chicks  are  well  hatched  they  must  have 
due  attention  to  keep  them  growing  thriftily  and  stead- 
ily developing  their  good  qualities. 

iSome  exhibitors  prefer  the  natural  method  of  hatch- 
ing and  brooding  while  others  trust  to  incubators  and 
machine  mothers. 

Pull  instructions  in  these  matters  have  been  given 
in  previous  chapters.  Whatever  the  method  pursued  it 
is  careful,  interested,  personal  attention  to  details  that 
determines  the  results. 

The  secret  of  success,  if  secret  it  may  be  termed, 
Is  to  make  each  and  every  condition  of  shelter,  feeding, 
exercise  and  control  ever  helping  and  never  hindering 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      225 

to   healthy   development  of  the  chicks.     Steady,   even, 
continuous  growth  is  thus  insured. 

Forcing  of  growth  is  undesirable.  Ample  time  should 
be  allowed  for  the  full  development  and  gradual  growth 
to  natural  size  of  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  bones,  sinews, 
muscles,  lungs,  digestive  system,  generative  organs  and 
of  all  other  parts  of  the  body. 

The  surface  appearance  or  outward  beauty  of  the 
bird  is  the  chief  thing  when  it  comes  to  the  show-room, 
but  healthfulness,  thrifty  growth,  good  digestive  power, 
vigor,  stamina  all  help  to  develop  the  beautiful  plumage 
and  attractive  appendages  of  the  prize-winner. 

'Sprightliness  and  symmetry  assort  well  together. 

Culling  may  commence  early,  certainly  "by  the  time 
the  chicks  are  two  months  old.  At  this  time,  or  as  soon 
as  possible,  the  chicks  should  be  separated  according  to 
sex  and  thereafter  be  kept  in  different  colonies. 

It  is  not  dimcult  to  pick  out  any  chicks  that  have 
crooked  spine  or  breast  bone,  uneven  hips,  missing 
rump,  wry  tail,  crossed  beak,  blindness  or  other  deform- 
ity, and  those  that  are  stunted,  or  that  show  decidedly 
defective  feathering. 

When  the  combs  and  wattles  are  sufficiently  devel- 
oped these  should  be  closely  scrutinized  and  any  chicks 
showing  incurable  defects  in  these  parts  are  removed 
from  the  flock.  Young  fowls  need  not  be  discarded  for 
failure  to  show  correct  feathering  while  growing  because 
their  first  feathers  will  be  shed  and  new  plumage  take 
their  place  before  show-time  arrives.  For  instance,  chicks 
of  some  white  varieties  may  show  grayish  or  smutty 
surface  color  when  hatched  and  while  growing,  but  put 
on  a  piure  white  plumage  as  adult  fowls. 

The  culled  chicks  may  be  used  for  the  table,  mark- 
eted as  broilers,  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  especially  if 
all  the  room  available  is  needed  for  the  chicks  that 
remain.  The  fancier  who  has  only  a  limited  area  for 
raising  chickens,  following  this  method,  may  hatch  a 
large  number  to  choose  from.  By  culling  early  and 


226      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

severely  and  disposing  of  the  culls  he  avoids  crowding 
the  choice  chicks.  The  poultryman  who  has  abundant 
room  may  prefer  to  raise  the  chicks  rejected  for  stand- 
ard defects,  but  otherwise  good,  to  larger  size. 

Sorting  and  selecting  of  the  choice  chicks  is  con- 
tinued until  only  the  exceptionally  excellent  oirds 
remain.  These  are  marked  by  means  of  leg  bands  and 
individually  studied  by  the  fancier  until  he  knows  each 
one's  points  fully. 

The  intending  exhibitor  should  decide  what  show  or 
shows  he  will  patronize  at  1'east  six  OT  eight  weeks 
before  they  occur.  He  should  ascertain  if  possible  who 
is  to  judge  the  birds  of  his  class.  According  to  the 
conditions  he  selects  a  number  of  his  birds  to  choose 
from,  for  the  coming  show,  ilf  the  birds  have  not  fully 
molted  their  chick  feathers,  some  linseed  meal  or  hemp 
seed  in  the  daily  ration  will  help  the  growth  of  the 
new  feathers.  Even  after  the  adult  feathering  is  com- 
plete a  little  linseed  m'eal  daily  will  be  beneficial  as  it 
helps  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  order  and  tends  to 
smoothness  and;  glossiness  of  the  plumage. 

Chickens  of  the  different  breed  groups  mature  at 
varying  ages.  The  Mediterraneans  are  fairly  well 
matured  at  six  to  seven  months;  the  American  varieties 
require  about  'eight  months  and  the  Asiatics,  on  the 
average,  ten  menths  to  reach  the  adult  stage  of  growth. 

'Inspection  of  the  plumage  for  defects  of  color  and 
condition  is  now  in  order.  If  any  of  the  birds  show 
characteristics  disqualifying  them  according  to  the 
standard  and  not  possible  of  correction,  th'ey  are  dis- 
carded. Any  stubs,  injured  quills,  or  feathers  having 
discolored  webs  are  to  be  removed  so  that  new  feathers 
may  replace  them. 

Lice,  mites  and  all  other  insect  enemies  must  be 
banished.  Intestinal  enemies  can  not  be  harbored  if  the 
birds  are  to  be  kept  in  health  and  good  condition.  Par- 
ticular watchfulness  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the 
surroundings  healthful  and  prevent  sickness  among  the 
handsome  fowls. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      227 

The  enthusiastic  amateur  should  avoid  over-doing 
things.  Coddling  the  fowls  is  quite  certain  to  cause 
softening  or  weakening  of  the  constitution.  Confinement 
of  the  cockerels  in  quarters  excessively  warm  is  likely 
to  induce  rapid  growth  of  their  combs.  In  case  of  single 
combs  which  should  stand  erect  there  is  lopping  or  fall- 
ing over.  Too  much  meat  in  the  rations  may  have  a 
like  effect. 

Pullets  of  the  Mediterranean  class,  such  as  the  Leg- 
horns, whose  combs  are  expected  to  become  as  large  as 
those  of  cockerels  and  to  fold  over  the  top  of  the  head, 
may  need  some  meat  to  stimulate  comb  growth  but  too 
much  animal  food  will  tend  to  cause  early  production 
of  eggs.  If  permitted  to  lay  there  will  be  halting  of 
body  growth,  reduction  of  weight  and  lessening  of  the 
glossiness  of  the  plumage. 

A  pullet  just  ready  to  lay  is  in  the  pink  of  condition 
for  exhibiting.  If  she  attains  this  condition  before  the 
poultry  show  occurs,  egg  production  may  usually  oe 
postponed  by  removing  her  to  new  quarters,  which,  if 
necessary,  may  be  made  cooler  and  darker  than  her 
previous  shelter. 

Weighing  of  the  birds  at  regular  intervals  for  several 
weeks  'before  show-time  will  give  a  very  exact  knowledge 
of  their  condition,  their  increase  in  size  and  approach 
to  standard  weight,  in  the  case  of  breeds  having  a  stand- 
ard weight  requirement. 

FITTING  FOWL  FOB  THE  SHOW. 

During  the  two  weeks  preceding  exhibition  the  birds 
should  be  trained  and  fitted  for  showing. 

A  comfortable  properly  ventilated  pen  or  room 
should  be  provided  where  the  fowls  can  at  any  time  be 
easily  caught  and  yet  not  be  crowded.  A  layer  of  fine 
clean,  dry  sand  is  placed  on  the  floor  and  over  this  a 
foot  depth  of  bright,  clean  straw  is  strewn. 

Males  and  females  are  kept  in  separate  pens  and 
only  fowls  well  acquainted  with  each  other  are  put  to- 


228      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


gether.     This  is  to  avoid  danger  of  injury  from 
and  quarreling. 

The  birds  will  be  exhibited  singly,  each  in  a  separ- 
ate coop,  at  the  show,  unless  the  fancier  chooses  to  enter 
his  fowls  as  an  "exhibition  pen"  of  one  male  and  four 
females. 

A  training  coop,  similar  to  an  exhibition  coop, 
should  be  placed  in  the  fowls'  apartment  about  three 
feet  above  the  floor.  In  this  cage  each  bird  may  be  daily 
trained  in  preparation  for  the  show. 

In  the  choice  of  birds  the  exhibitor  first  sees  that 
they  are  free  from  disqualifications  and  next  seeks  to 
select  such  as  have  shape  as  near  to  the  standard  as 
possible,  being  guided  by  the  standard  descriptions  and 
illustrations.  He  looks  to  the  head,  especially  the  beak, 
comb  and  eyes  and  does  not  neglect  the  wattles  or  ear- 
lobes. 

The  color  or  markings  of  the  plumage,  both  surface 
and  subsurface,  are  exceedingly  important. 

A  bird  having  any  glaring  defect  is  to  be  rejected 
in  favor  of  one  having  several  minor  defects. 

The  description  of  the  standard  should  be  taken 
literally  as  it  stands. 

In  breeds  of  white  plumage,  brassiness,  yellow 
color  and  even  straw  color  or  creaminess  are  blemishes. 

In  black  colored  breeds  bronze  or  purple  barring 
is  undersirable.  A  dull  somber  black  is  passable  but  a 
metallic  greenish  black  is  preferred. 

Fresh  water,  grit  and  granulated  charcoal  are  kept 
in  hoppers  before  the  fowls  and  they  are  fed  their  re- 
gular rations.  Some  of  the  grain  is  scattered  in  the 
loose  straw  to  induce  scratching  for  the  sake  of  body 
exercise  and  consequent  good  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Birds  that  are  below  standard  weight  may  be 
brought  up  by  feeds  of  fresh,  finely  cut  meat  and  warm 
mashes.  Gentle  handling  of  the  fowls  frequently  makes 
them  tame  and  submissive  to  training  so  that  they  are 
not  easily  frightened  during  exhibition  time. 

A  bird  placed  in  the  training  coop  is  taught  to  ,stand 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      229 

up  and  by  proper  posing  to  show  off  his  fine  shape  to 
advantage.  The  trainer  may  use  a  light  stick  about  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter  and  two  feet  in  length  to  touch  up 
the  bird  and  make  him  pose  correctly.  After  a  few 
lessons  he  should  prose  promptly  on  the  approach  of  the 
trainer  or  any  other  person. 

If  a  comb  or  wattle  is  not  quite  correct  it  may  often 
be  worked  into  proper  shape  by  daily  manipulating 
with  the  thumb  and  fingers.  Slightly  defective  wings 
and  tails  may  be  improved  in  like  manner. 

If  the  exhibitor  knows  what  feed  is  to  be  given 
the  fowls  at  the  show  he  may  use  such  feed  for  their 
rations  during  two  or  three  days  previous  to  showing 
and  thus  accustom  them  to  exhibition  diet. 

The  birds  should  be  clean  when  they  go  to  the  show. 
The  combs,  wattles,  ear-lobes,  shanks  and  toes  should  be 
sponged  with  warm  water  and  soap  that  is  not  harsh. 

If  dirt  has  collected  under  the  leg  and  toe-scales  it 
is  readily  removed  after  sponging  or  soaking  by  the  use 
of  a  wooden  tooth-pick. 

The  parts  cleaned  by  sponging  with  warm  soapy 
water  should  be  again  sponged  with  clean  cold  water 
and  may  later  be  gently  rubbed  with  vaseline  then 
wiped  with  a  soft,  dry  cloth.  This  treatment  may  be 
repeated  at  the  show  if  necessary. 

Birds  of  white  plumage  may  require  washing  to 
make  their  appearance  attractive. 

Place  the  bird  in  a  tub  or  large  bucket  filled  with 
warm  water  which  has  been  brought  to  a  lather  by  us- 
ing white  wool  soap  or  a  soap  containing  no  resin  or 
harsh  alkali.  The  bird  is  immersed  except  the  head 
and  the  soapy  lather  worked  through  the  feathers  to  the 
skin.  Next  place  the  bird  in  a  tub  of  clear  lukewarm 
water  and  sponge  out  the  dirty  soapy  water  thoroughly. 
Do  not  rub  against  the  grain  of  the  feathers.  Finally 
place  the  specimen  in  a  tub  of  clear,  cool  water  to 
which  may  be  added  a  little  laundry  blueing  to  help  le- 
move  any  yellowishness  of  the  plumage.  Thorough 
rinsing  is  followed  by  removal  of  the  bird  to  a  com- 


230      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

forta'ble  place  where  he  can  shake  himself  free  of  excess 
of  water.  Then  with  a  dry  towel  most  of  the  moisture 
is  absorbed  from  the  feathers.  The  bird  is  placed  in  a 
coop  fronting  an  open  fire,  over  a  warm  register  or  in 
any  suitable  comfortable,  warm  place  to  completely  dry 
out. 

If  the  bathing  has  been  properly  done  the  plumage 
becomes  bright,  fluffy  and  very  white,  giving  the  bird  a 
most  attractive  appearance. 

To  help  keep  the  plumage  white  and  clean,  fine,  dry, 
laundry  starch  may  be  sifted  among  the  feathers. 

SHIPPING   TO   THE    SHOW. 

Exhibition  fowl  are  usually  forwarded  to  the  show 
by  rail  in  charge  of  an  express  company.  The  journey 
may  include  a  drive  in  an  open  wagon,  a  wait  upon  an 
exposed  rail-road  platform,  a  ride  in  a  hot  box  car, 
storage  for  a  while  in  a  closed  express  office  or  in  a  wind 
swept  shed,  another  wagon  trip  and  perhaps  a  delay  at 
the  door  of  the  show  room  and  all  under  vicissitudes  of 
weather  which  may  not  be  fore-told. 

Light,  strong  shipping  coops  are  now  manufactured 
which  are  well  suited  to  the  purpose.  If  the  poultry- 
man  must  furnish  exhibition  coops  for  his  fowls  at  the 
show  he  may  ship  them  in  combination  shipping  and 
exhibition  coops.  These  are  also  manufactured  in 
quantities  and  sold  by  poultry  supply  houses. 

In  either  case  or  in  any  case  it  is  well  to  cover 
the  top,  back  and  sides  with  cloth  and  provide  a  curtain 
for  the  front  of  the  coop.  Strong  canvas  cloth  is  best 
for  this  purpose  but  common  cotton  cloth  can  be  used. 
During  the  shipment  the  curtain  in  front  is  closely  fas- 
tened down.  The  cloth  protects  the  birds  from  winds, 
yet  admits  plenty  of  fresh  air.  If  the  top  of  the  coop  is 
made  of  thin  boards  the  birds,  during  transportation, 
will  be  comparatively  safe  also  from  rain  or  snow. 

If  convenient  the  shipper  may  well  take  the  same 
train  to  the  show  that  carries  his  coops  of  exhibition 
fowls.  He  can  then  see  how  his  birds  fare  before  and 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      231 

after  their  journey  by-  rail  and  perhaps  prevent  their 
undue  exposure  to  unfavorable  conditions. 

CAEE  OF  THE  BIBDS  AT  THE  SHOW. 

After  his  birds  are  safely  delivered  at  the  place  of 
exhibition  the  fancier  may  find  it  possible  to  help  get 
them  promptly  into  their  show  coops  in  a  position 
where  the  light  is  favorable  and  wnere  there  is  plenty 
of  pure  air  without  danger  of  drafts.  He  should  toe  on 
the  watch  for  roupy  birds  and  prevent  any  such,  being 
brought  near  his  coops. 

He  can  probably  arrange  with  the  superintendent  of 
the  show  or  his  assistant  to  leave  all  of  the  feeding, 
watering  and  care  of  his  birds  to  himself. 

After  the  birds  are  in  place  the  fancier  gives  them 
food  and  drink,  sponges  off  any  soiled  plumage  and 
lightly  touches  the  combs,  wattles  andi  shanks  with  vase- 
line. 

No  food  is  to  be  left  in  the  coop  and  the  water  cup 
is  emptied  to  prevent  wetting  of  the  'birds  and  soaking 
of  the  litter  on  the  floor  of  the  coop. 

Feeding  and  watering  three  times  daily  is  suffi- 
cient but  the  birds  may  also  receive  pieces  of  apple  to 
make  up  for  the  lack  of  green  food.  A  little  fresh 
beef  cut  into  small  pieces  and  fed  from  the  hand  will 
help  to  balance  the  grain  diet  of  the  show  room.  Chop- 
ped or  sliced  onions  may  be  given  to  strengthen  the 
rations.  Grit  should  be  provided  daily.  Any  food  that 
drops  into  the  litter  in  the  coop  should  be  removed  to 
prevent  the  fowls  swallowing  it  with  adhering  bits  of 
saw  dust,  shavings  or  straw. 

After  the  day's  showing  is  ended  close  down  the 
front  curtain  and  if  the  coop  has  an  open  top  cover  it 
with  cloth  or  papers  fastened  securely  in  place. 

If  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  the  fowls  begin  to 
catch  cold  give  them  prompt  treatment.  Indications  to 
be  watched  for  are  shaking  of  the  head,  sneezing,  run- 
ning at  the  nostrils,  or  dark  dust  collecting  on  the  mu- 
cous at  the  base  of  the  nostrils,  watering  of  the  eyes 


232      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

and  moping.  Feed  more  chopped  onions  and  give  each 
afflicted  fowl  a  two-grain  quinine  pill  in  a  piece  of  fresh 
beef,  night  and  morning. 

When  not  attending  to  his  fowls  the  fancier,  of 
course,  makes  the  most  of  his  opportunity  to  inspect 
the  other  entries  and  confer  with  his  fellow  fanciers. 

ATTENTION   AFTER  THE  SHOW. 

As  soon  as  the  show  begins  to  break  up  the  fancier 
personally  attends  to  the  placing  of  his  birds  in  their 
own  shipping  coo(ps  or  superintends  the  operation.  He 
thus  avoids  all  danger  of  mixing  his  fowls  so  that  fight- 
ing and  consequent  mutilation  of  the  birds  will  not  oc- 
cur in  the  coops. 

Having  made  sure  that  he  has  his  own  orize 
winners  safely  cooped,  he  fastens  the  front  curtain  of 
the  coops  securely,  tags  the  coops  carefully  and  sees 
them  on  board  the  express  wagon. 

ilf  possible  he  takes  the  train  for  home  that  trans- 
ports his  coops  of  fowls  and  is  at  hand  to  attend  to 
them  on  arrival  at  the  railway  station  and  soon  they 
are  back  in  their  fitting  pens.  Here  the  birds  should 
remain  quarantined,  for  at  least  a  week,  to  make  sure 
that  they  have  brought  home  no  contagious  disease. 

If  no  sickness  develops  and  no  more  showing  is  to 
take  place  the  fowls  are  removed  on  a  mild  comfortable 
day  to  their  regular  quarters. 

If  these  birds  are  to  be  sent  to  other  shows  they 
may  be  kept  in  the  fitting  pens  and  training  coops  until 

SCORING  OP  FOWLS. 

Scoring  is  a  method  of  deterimining,  point  by  point, 
how  a  fowl  compares  with  the  standard  of  perfection  for 
a  typical  bird  of  the  breed  or  variety  to  which  the  fowl 
belongs. 

A  scale  is  arranged  for  each  approved  variety, 
giving  to  each  section  of  the  fowl  a  number  of  points  to 
express  the  value  of  the  same  as  compared  with  other 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      233 

parts.     The  points  of  a-  perfect  bird  amount  in  all  to  one 
hundred. 

For  recording  the  defects  and  showing  the  standing 
of  each  specimen  scored,  a  so  called  score  card  is  used. 

In  scoring  a  qualified  bird  the  specimen  is  critically 
examined  and  any  short-comings  of  the  parts  in  each 
section  noted.  A  discount  or  "cut"  is  recorded  upon 
the  score  card  for  each  defect  according  to  importance. 
After  the  examination  of  the  bird,  section  by  section,  is 
completed,  the  cuts  are  added  together  and  their  sum 
subtracted  from  one  hundred.  Thus  if  the  cuts  amount- 
ed to  eight  and  one-half  the  score  of  the  bird  would  be 
ninety-one  and  one-half  points. 

At  numerous  poultry  shows  the  judges  score  each 
qualified  fowl  entered  in  competition  for  the  prizes.  The 
cuts  are  recorded  on  score  cards  and  the  premiums  in 
each  class  are  awarded  according  to  the  scores  of  the 
birds  thus  officially  determined. 

The  score  card,  for  each  foVl  scored,  is  signed  by 
the  poultry  judge  and  the  secretary  of  the  association, 
holding  the  poultry  show,  and  usually  becomes  the  prop- 
erty of  the  owner  of  the  fowl. 

Some  fanciers  never  exhibit  their  birds  at  shows 
and  yet  may  desire  to  have  the  standing  of  their  fine 
birds  deterimined. 

Some  breeders  of  pure-bred  fowl  seek  to  secure  ccr- 
shipped  to  the  next  poultry  show, 
rcet  scores  of  all  their  valuable  birds. 

Purchasers  of  first-class  breeding  stock  oftentimes 
desire  to  have  the  birds  accompanied  by  score  cards 
showing  their  correct  standing. 

If  the  owner  of  the  fowls  is  qualified  he  may  score 
them  himself. 

If  not  qualified  he  may  employ  a  poultry  judge  or 
an  expert  scorer  .to  do  the  work.  Some  breeders  who 
can  do  the  scoring  themselves  prefer  to  employ  a 
specialist  for  the  purpose,  especially  in  case  the  fowls 
are  to  be  offerred  for  sale. 

The  poultryman  who  has  not  1  arned  how  to  score 


234      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

fowls  may,  if  he  is  capable,  in  due  time  become  suffici- 
ently expert  in  the  work.  He  should'  possess  a  natural 
aptitude  for  discerning  the  good  points  andi  the  defects 
of  birds  of  the  breed)  selected. 

The  scorer  must  become  very  familiar  with  the 
standard  requirements  that  relate  to  the  breed  or  variety 
to  'be  scored.  He  should  study  the  illustrations  of 
typical  birds  of  the  breed  until  their  ideal  shape  is  per- 
fectly pictured  in  his  mind.  He  should  know  the 
general  and  special  disqualifications  which  exclude 
birds  from  competition  in  poultry  shows  even  if  he  does 
not  enter  fowls  for  exhibition. 

The  instructions  to  judges  and  the  table  showing 
the  range  of  points  allowed  in  cutting  for  defects  in  the 
standard  of  perfection,  must  become  well  fixed  in  his 
memory. 

Considerable  experience  in  breeding  fowls  of  the 
variety  to  be  scored,  is  a  very  valuable  ipart  of  the  scor- 
er's preparation  for  his" task. 

Acting  as  assistant  to  a  veteran  poultry  judge  or  an 
expert  specialist  while  scoring  fowls  is  an  excellent  ex- 
perience for  the  beginner  in  this  line. 

Instruction  in  scoring,  together  with  some  training 
and  practice,  is  usually  given  in  the  poultry  courses  pro- 
vided by  many  of  our  state  agricultural  colleges. 

The  scoring  of  fowls  is  one  of  the  things  that  Is 
best  learned  by  doing.  Under  the  guidance  of  an  ex- 
pert who  can  teach  as  well  as  score,  the  student,  who 
has  a  talent  for  the  work,  will  soon  learn  his  lesson. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      235 

APPLYING    THE    SCORE    CARD 

Following  is  a  sample  score  card. 

NEBRASKA  SCHOQlTOF  AGRICULTURE 

Official  Score  Card  of  the  American  Poultry  Association 


Date  -       Variety.. 

Owner ...    Sex 

Address.--    -__   Band  No. 

Entry  No Weight.- 


j  Shape 

Color 

REMARKS 

Weight  or  Size                       

Condition                          

Head  and  Beak             | 

Eyes                                ' 

Comb 

Wattle"  &  Ear  Lobes 

Neck 

Wings 

Back 

Tail              

Breast 

Body  and  Fluff             j 

Leg's  and  Toes  .          j 

*  Hardness  of  Feather 

fCrest  and  Beard        •  ' 

Total  Cuts Score 

*Applies  to  Games  and  Game  Bantams, 
f  Applies  to  Crested  Breeds 

Name  of  Judge 

Secretary   


The  scorer  begins  with,  the  bird  standing  before 
him  in  its  natural  poise.  Having  the  typical  shape  of 
the  breed  in  his  mind's  eye  and  the  standard  of  perfect- 
ion for  the  bird  in  his  memory  he  first  looks  at  the 
specimen  as  it  stands  or  moves  about  and  studies  its 
symmetry.  He  determines  to  what  extent,  if  at  all,  the 
bird  lacks  in  perfection  of  proportions  or  in  harmony 
of  parts,  viewed  as  a  whole,  considering  the  type  of  the 
breed  to  which  it  belongs.  If  no  decided  defect  appears 


236      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

in  this  respect  he  passes  this  point  trusting  to  future 
cuts  for  shape  in  the  several  sections  to  make  up  for 
leniency  in  this  matter,  ilf  there  is  serious  lack  of  sym- 
metry the  scorer  cuts  accordingly,  remembering  the 
value  of  perfect  symmetry,  which)  in  the  scale  for  most 
of  the  classes  is  eight  points  in  one  hundred. 

The  next  point  is  weight  or  size.  If  the  bird  is  In 
a  class  having  a  weight  requirement,  its  actual  weight 
will  determine  whether  it  is  perfect  or  not  in  this  re- 
spect. When  no  weight  clause  is  given  the  scorer  will 
cut  only  for  decided  departure  from  the  standard  size 
for  the  breed  represented. 

Condition  is  the  next  matter  for  consideration  ac- 
cording to  the  score  card.  The  bird  is  taken  in  the 
hands  and  cuts  are  recorded  if  the  fowl  shows  lack  ot 
health  or  cleanliness  and  order  of  plumage,  according  to 
their  seriousness  and  the  total  value  allowed  for  per- 
fect condition,  in  the  scale  of  points  for  the  variety  in 
question. 

Following  these  preliminary  examinations  the  bird 
in  the  hands  of  the  scorer  is  critically  inspected  as  to 
shape  and  color  of  the  successive  sections  from  head  to 
toes  and  cuts  made  where  defects  appear. 

The  total  cuts  and  score  are  recorded  and  the  date, 
the  leg-band  number,  and  other  entries  having  been 
made  the  card  is  duly  signed  by  the  judge  or  other  ex- 
pert who  scores  the  bird. 

Since  the  weight,  condition,  and  in  some  cases  the 
color  of  the  bird  vary  at  different  seasons,  it  is  evident 
that  its  score  may  also  vary  somewhat.  The  score  card 
is  therefore  a  measure  of  the  valuation  of  the  bird's 
points  (according  to  the  standard)  at  the  time  of  scor- 
ing. 

The  chief  value  of  the  score  card  records  is  not 
found  in  the  statement  of  the  sum  of  total  defects  or  the 
"score"  that  results  when  this  sum  is  deducted  from  the 
one  hundred  points  of  perfection.  It  is  valuable  and 
helpful  mainly  because  it  points  out  the  sections  wherein 
defects  actually  appear. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      237 

Two  birds  may -have  a  like  final  score  and  yet  be  of 
very  unlike  value  for  breeding,  exhibiting  or  selling 
purposes. 

If  a  fowl  shows  excellence  in  most  parts  but  is  very 
defective  in  one  or  two  sections  the  fancier  may  wisely 
discard  him  and  choose  another  fowl  which  though 
having  a  like  final  score,  makes  up  the  total  of  its  cuts 
by  a  number  of  minor  defects  distributed  among  the 
sections. 

Especially  is  it  important  that  a  male  bird  should 
not  be  defective  mainly  in  the  shape  of  the  head  and  its 
appendages.  Particularly  is  this  so  if  the  bird  is  known 
to  be  prepotent  in  transmitting  these  faults  to  his 
chickens. 

The  scoring  of  fowls  according  to  a  scale  of  points 
is  of  lasting  benefit  to  the  poultry  breeder  because  of  the 
drill  it  gives  him  in  the  systematic  study  of  his  birds. 

It  is  well  for  the  progressive  poultry  man  to  learn 
the  method  and  practice  it  even  if  he  does  not  become 
an  expert  in  scoring,  for  he  thereby  gains  the  habit  of 
closely  observing  his  fowls  and  estimating  their  values 
according  to  a  standard  of  perfection. 

JUDGING. 

Correct  decisive  criticism  of  the  points  of  pure-bred 
poultry  according  to  a  standard  of  excellence,  calls  for 
the  exercise  of  particular  powers  of  mind  not  possessed 
in  perfection  by  the  majority  of  men. 

Perhaps  a  judge,  like  a  teacher,  is  born  and  not 
made,  but  a  poultry  judge  should  be  both  born  and 
made. 

•It  is  certainly  no  drawback  to  a  judge  of  fine  fowls 
to  be  possessed  of  judicial  qualities  by  inheritance. 

Honor,  fairness  and  fearlessness  are  essential  char- 
acteristics of  an  upright  judge.  He  sho'ild  be  temper- 
ate, deliberate  and  decided,  neither  prejudiced  nor  par- 
tial in  his  ways  and  well  balanced  in  judgment. 

The  poultry  judge  should  also  have  an  inborn  liking 


238      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

for  the  beautiful  birds  and  have  an  eye  for  their  points 
of  superiority. 

Having  this  excellent  equipment  of  natural  qualities, 
he  may  by  the  exercise  of  his  talents  in  the  school  of  ex- 
perience gain  such  skilfulness  as  will  varrant  the  em- 
ploying of  his  services  in  adjudging  the  awards  of  prizes 

The  poultry  judge  should  become  a  persistent  stud- 
ent of  the  standard  and  ought  to  have  experience  in 
breeding  fowls  of  the  class  which  he  attempts  to  judge. 

The  tendency  of  the  times  is  to  specialize  in  poultry 
judging.  The  judge  who  has  the  necessary  qualities 
and  training  and  confines  his  judging  to  one  breed  or 
its  varieties  or  to  a  single  variety  should  prove  capable 
of  rendering  most  satisfactory  service  in  the  show  room. 

Deafness  appears  to  be,  in  some  ways  an  advantage 
to  a  judge  and  occasional  dumbness  is  not  a  bad  char- 
acteristic. 

Certainly  he  should  have  a  mind  of  his  own  and 
possess  a  large  stock  of  common  sense. 

Expertness  in  the  scoring  of  fowls  is  but  one  of  the 
accomplishments  of  a  good  poultry  judge.  He  should 
be  qualified  to  weigh  well  and  quickly,  almost  intuitive- 
ly, the  relative  importance  of  minor  and  dissimilar  de- 
fects in  comparing  birds  showing  close  competition. 

In  some  poultry  shows  judging  is  done  by  what  is 
termed  the  comparison  system.  -Score  cards  are  not 
used. 

In  applying  this  plan,  judges  are  instructed  to  con- 
sider carefully  each  and  every  section  of  the  fowls,  giv- 
ing due  value  to  both  shape  and  color  according  to  the 
standard  scale  of  points  for  the  breed. 

Practically  the  judge  does  score  the  birds  although 
no  record  of  the  defects  is  kept,  except  a  mental  one  by 
the  judge. 

In  shows  where  the  classes  are  very  large  this  sys- 
tem of  judging  by  comparison  allows  of  rapid  work  in 
awarding  the  prizes. 

Whatever  the    system  of  deciding  the    awards,  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      239 

judge  should  be  steadfast  and  uniform  in  his  judging. 
He  will  thus  win  a  reputation  for  reliability,  secure  and 
hold  the  confidence  of  exhibitors  and  please  the  poultry 
public. 


c      « 
<u      e 


I 


CHAPTER  XI 
Records,  Accounts,  Advertising 

Unless  the  poultryman  is  gifted  with  a  most  extra- 
ordinary power  of  memory  he  should  keep  written 
records  of  all  the  important  details  of  his  business  as 
they  occur. 

Even  if  memory  does  serve  him  particularly  well,  he 
should  not  tax  it  with  many  things  which  may  be  ac- 
curately committed  to  paper  and  preserved  for  years 
for  the  use  of  any  one  interested. 

The  great  value  of  reliable  records  is  as  a  means  of 
reference.  For  instance  it  is  of  great  advantage  in  the 
mating  of  pure-bred  fowl  to  know,  beyond  peradventure, 
their  past  performance  in  growth,  egg  production, 
breeding  or  fancy  qualities. 

Carefully  kept,  continuous  records  also  offer  a  means 
of  comparison,  year  by  year,  and  thus  becomes  a  meas- 
ure of  progress  in  poultry  culture. 

The  poultryman  will  find  it  convenient  to  use  a  card 
system  for  some  of  the  records  and  loose  leaves  tor 
others,  while  books  may  be  utilized  in  some  lines.  For 
the  cards  box-holders  are  provided  and  these  are  kept 
in  order  in  a  suitable  filing  cabinet.  The  loose  leaves 
may  be  of  any  convenient  size,  punched  with  holes 
near  the  edge  for  filing  and  be  kept  together  by  a  Har- 
vard binder,  a  Shannon  file,  a  shoestring  or  a  piece  of 
narrow  tape. 

SPECIAL   RECORDS. 

Separate  records  may  be  kept  of  any  matters,  con- 
cerning which  the  poultryman  may  wish  to  have  data 
for  reference  in  his  progressive  poultry  keeping. 

The  ingenious  poultryman  will  not  depend  upon  sam- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      241 

pie  forms  or  suggested  methods  of  keeping  records, 
but  will  develop  convenient  forms  especially  suited  to 
his  conditions  and  purposes,  so  that  they  will  contain, 
in  condensed  form,  just  the  information  desired  for  fu- 
ture reference. 

The  forms  for  special  recording  are  to  be  kept  posted 
where  it  will  be  easiest  to  use  them.  A  pencil  should 
be  kept  within  easy  reach  so  that  the  means  of  record- 
ing are  always  at  hand  and  there  is  no  temptation  to 
omit  the  duty. 

As  the  forms,  if  kept  in  the  hen  house,  are  likely  to 
become  dusty  or  stained,  the  poultryman  may  prefer  to 
make  temporary  entries  on  sheets  of  paper  and  post 
the  data  in  a  book  or  file  for  preservation  in  neat, 
clean  shape. 

BREEDING  RECORDS. — In  breeding  pure-bred  stock,  by 
line  breeding,  very  accurate  account  should  be  kept  of 
the  matings  and  of  the  chickens  resulting  from  the 
same.  Use  may  be  made  of  forms  similar  to  that  of 
the  breeding  chart  already  shown  by  diagram  in  Chap- 
ter II.  By  means  of  sealed  leg-bands  which  are  marked 
in  series,  A,  B,  C,  etc.,  and  by  successive  numbers, 
never  repeated  in  the  flocks  of  the  poultryman,  the 
breeding  stock  and  the  progeny  may  be  designated 
with  absolute  accuracy.  The  breeder  will  then,  by  the 
records,  know  the  relationship  of  the  birds  to  each 
other  with  certainity. 

The  leg-bands  also  designate  the  fowl  definitely  in 
keeping  other  records  of  their  performance. 

EGG-LAYING  RECORDS.  An  egg  record  of  the  flock  as 
a  whole  or  of  individual  layers  is  often  kept. 

The  breeder  of  great  layers,  especially,  desires  to 
know  what  the  hens  of  his  breeding  pens  have  done  in 
their  first  laying  season. 

If  only  a  few  pens  of  fowls  are  to  be  kept  track  of, 
the  attendant  can  soon  learn  to  distinguish  the  eggs  of 
individual  layers  and  by  having  a  record  blank  and 
pencil  in  a  convenient  place,  he  readily  keeps  tally  of 
the  eggs  laid. 


242      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


If  the  laying  of  many  different  hens  is  to  be  re- 
corded, trap-nests  become  useful  aids  in  the  process. 

Fhe  following  form  for  keeping  the  laying  record  of 
a  flock  may  be  modified  to  suit  the  purpose  of  the 
poultryman  and  copies  may  then  be  printed  for  use. 

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PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      243 


INCUBATOB  RECORDS.-,  Keeping  records  of  artificial  in- 
cubating is  very  necessary  if  the  operator  desires  to 
carefully  consider  conditions  in  searching  for  the 
causes  of  results. 

Following  is  a  form  which  has  proved  acceptable  in 
recording  conditions  of  machine  hatching: 

INCUBATOR     NO._ 


Breed  of  'Number  of 
Eggs  Eggs       sterile 


First  Test:     I  Second  Test 


Dead 


Dead 


Number 
Hatched 


TEMPERATURE  IN  INCUBATOR 


DATES 

INCUBATING 
DAYS 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

l: 

14 

is 

16 

17 

Id 

1920 

MORNING  ---. 
NOON 

NIGHT  

TEMPERATURE  IN  ROOM 


AIORNIXG 

! 

NOON 

NIGHT- 

HUMIDITY  IN  ROOM 


1; 

NOON  

NIGHT  

NOTES 

In  the  footnotes  may  be  stated  the  per  cent,  of  eggs 
fertile,  per  cent,  of  all  eggs  hatched,  per  cent,  of  fertile 
eggs  hatched,  number  of  cripples,  weaklings,  number 
of  healthy  chicks  transferred  to  brooding  place  and  any 
other  items  such  as  weather  conditions,  transfers 
of  eggs,  occurrence  of  blood  rings,  points  in  the  history 
of  the  eggs,  etc.,  etc. 


244      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

SITTING  RECORDS.  In  hatching  eggs  by  the  natural 
method  a  record  is  readily  kept  by  using  stiff  paste- 
board cards,  one  for  each  sitting  hen,  to  be  tacked  up 
close  to  the  nest. 

The  following  is  a  sample  of  items  that  may  be 
placed  upon  the  sitting  card: 

SITTING  HEN,   NO.  F  16. 


Breed  of  Eggs 

Eggs    from    Pen    No, 

Date  of  Setting 

First    Test 

Infertile    

Dead   Germs 

Second   Test , 

Dead     

Number    Hatched 

Number   Cripples 

Total  strong  chicks . 
Notes:  


Additional  headings  may  be  placed  on  the  cards  or 
comments  may  be  made  in  the  foot-notes  covering 
such  items  as  the  parentage  of  the  eggs,  the  method 
of  feeding,  housing  and  managing  the  parent  fowls, 
their  laying  record  at  the  time  of  producing  the  eggs 
that  were  set,  the  age  of  the  hen  when  set,  the  break- 
ing of  any  eggs  in  the  nest  and  the  washing  of  those 
unbroken,  the  transfer  of  eggs  to  or  from  the  nest, 
changing  the  sitting  hen,  appearance  of  blood-rings  at 
testing  time,  strength  of  chicks  hatched,  weather  con- 
ditions, and  any  other  information  that  the  poultry- 
man  wishes  to  have  recorded. 

BROODING  RECORDS.  The  record  kept  in  natural 
brooding  is  simply  the  noting  of  any  loss  of  chicks, 
day  by  day,  and  the  stating  of  the  causes  if  possible. 
A  separate  record  for  each  hen's  brood  should  be  kept 
if  convenient. 

In  machine  brooding  the  deaths  and  other  losses  of 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      245 

chicks  should  be  recorded  daily.  The  temperature 
within  and  without  the  brooder  or  hover  may  also  be 
recorded  according  to  the  plan  used  for  incubators,  li 
the  poultryman  is  testing  or  comparing  systems  of  art- 
tificial  brooding  he  may  also  record  the  conditions  of 
humidity  and  ventilation,  of  fuel  consumption  and  any 
other  pertinent  matters. 

COLONY  RECORDS.  After  the  chicks  are  in  the  fields 
or  yards,  in  colonies,  the  daily  or  at  least  the  weekly 
deaths  and  losses  should  be  recorded  and  notes  made 
of  any  conditions  of  weather,  housing,  feeding  or  care 
that  might  bear  upon  the  matter  of  mortality  of  the 
chickens. 

FEEDING  RECORDS.  In  working  out  a  system  of  ra- 
tions or  method  of  feeding  for  a  given  purpose,  such 
as  egg  production  in  late  autumn  and  early  winter  or 
molting  in  mid-summer,  the  poultryman  often  tests 
different  kinds  of  feeds,  tries  different  proportions  of 
certain  feed-stuffs,  or  varies  the  method  of  feeding  for 
given  periods.  In  these  tests  he  may  wish  to  deter- 
mine also  the  cost  of  food  and  of  labor.  Records  may 
be  kept  on  special  forms  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the 
tests. 

NEW  FEED-STUFFS  become  available  from  time  to 
time  and  the  progressive  poultryman  wishes  to  com- 
pare them  with  the  feeds  which  he  has  been  using. 
For  example  dried  buttermilk  which  has  been  used 
for  making  paste  is  offered  as  a  poultry  food  and  the 
poultryman  desires  to  learn  how  well  it  will  take  the 
place  of  beef-scraps  in  his  fowls'  rations.  Again  the 
question  of  feeding  dry  grain  food  or  of  moistening  it 
with  water  before  feeding  is  an  important  one. 

The  poultryman  who  experiments  to  solve  these  or 
other  problems  in  their  relation  to  his  circumstances 
and  purposes  will  arrange  particular  forms  for  record- 
ing the  conditions  and  results. 

LABOR  RECORDS.  Experimenting  with  different  plans 
of  housing  or  methods  of  feeding  and  management  to 
determine  the  relative  cost  of  the  labor  involved,  un-' 
der  local  conditions,  are  ofttimes  desirable. 


246      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

The  records  of  such  for  given  periods  of  time  should 
give  the  amount  of  time  and  cost  of  the  labor.  Condi- 
tions of  the  weather,  of  the  health  of  the  fowls,  of  any 
variations  of  influences  bearing  on  the  experiments 
should  be  noted.  The  results  should  be  carefully  re- 
corded and  comparisons  made. 

If  the  final  results  point  to  the  desirability  of  repeat- 
ing the  experiments,  more  recording  will  become  nec- 
essary and  the  succeeding  records  should  in  form  be 
similar  to  those  of  the  first  series  of  tests.  Thus  com- 
parison of  results  is  made  easy  and  the  final  conclus- 
ions should  be  of  value. 

The  poultryman  is  warranted  in  spending  consider- 
able money  for  experiments  under  his  local  conditions 
if  thereby  he  may  develop  a  system  of  management 
which  will  insure  a  continuous  saving  of  labor  in  the 
operations  of  the  poultry  plant. 

In  all  recording,  simplicity  rather  than  complexity 
is  to  be  commended.  The  recorder  should  keep  the 
main  object  in  view  and  note  simply  tLe  essential 
points  of  the  conditions  that  bear  directly  upon  the 
problem. 

After  records  have  been  made  they  should  be  care- 
fully preserved  where  mice,  moths  and  molds  can  not 
injure  or  spoil  them.  They  should  be  studied. 

THE    POULTRY    MAN'S    DIARY. 

A  daily  diary  of  operations  on  the  poultry  plant  is 
readily  kept  when  one  gets  the  habit  of  writing  down 
the  matters  worthy  of  recording  at  a  regular  hour  each 
day. 

A  loose-leaf  diary  has  the  advantage  that  the  sheets 
of  like  date,  for  successive  years  may  be  kept  together. 
Then  at  a  glance  the  poultryman  can  see  what  was 
done  on  a  certain  date  for  several  successive  years.  He 
can  also  ascertain  when  incubating  or  a,ny  other  oper- 
ation began  in  different  years. 

The  diary  thus  becomes,  in  some  degree  a  guide  as 
to  the  proper  time  for  doing  various  seasonable  oper- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      247 

ations.  It  helps  the,  poultry  man  to  be  ahead  of  time 
in  his  plans  and  on  time  with  all  his  work. 

The  diary  is  an  excellent  place  for  jotting  down  the 
observations  of  the  poultryman  as  to  his  fowls,  pur- 
chases, sales,  methods  of  management,  tests  of  appli- 
ances, etc. 

Incidentally  the  practice  of  writing  out  his  opinions 
and  the  results  of  his  studies,  helps  his  decisiveness  of 
judgment,  strengthens  his  powers  of  close  observation 
and  exercises  his  talent  for  expressing  his  thoughts  in 
condensed  language. 

POULTRY    ACCOUNTS. 

Book-keeping  is  the  recording  of  business  transac- 
tions in  such  a  manner  that  a  clear  and  accurate 
statement  of  the  condition  of  affairs  is  alwavs  at 
hand. 

Poultry  keeping  is  a  business— a  financial  under- 
taking— involving  the  investment  of  capital  and  pay- 
ments for  running  expenses.  A  system  of  accounting 
is  necessary  if  this  business  is  to  be  conducted  cor- 
rectly. 

The  poultryman  should  keep  records  of  all  the  in- 
come  and  expenses  of  his  business  in  order  to  know 
whether  it  is  profitable  or  not,  what  branches  of  the 
business  are  yielding  profit  or  loss,  where  wastes  or 
leaks  occur,  where  to  enlarge  and  where  to  retrench 
wisely. 

Every  business  poultryman  needs  the  healthy  re- 
straints resulting  from  the  keeping  cf  exact  accounts 
of  his  receipts  and  disbursements.  It  not  only  pro- 
motes economy  and  enterprise  but  teaches  order  and 
system  in  management,  diminishes  temptation,  dis- 
courages dishonesty  and  lessens  the  chances  of  litiga- 
tion. The  accounting  poultryman  knows  his  financial 
position. 

If  a  son  or  daughter  is  given  charge  of  the  family 
flock  of  fowls,  one  of  the  conditions  should  be  the 
keeping  of  the  accounts.  A  poultryman  who  likes  to 


248      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

keep  fowls  but  does  not  like  to  keep  accounts  may  em- 
ploy one  of  his  children  or  some  other  member  of  the 
family  to  keep  the  books.  This  is  an  excellent  way  in 
which  to  begin  the  business  training  of  the  young 
people. 

A  poultryman  may,  if  he  wishes  to  avoid  keeping 
full  accounts,  at  least  keep  a  cash  account.  In  this 
case  he  simply  charges  against  cash  all  money  received 
and  credits  Cash  with  all  money  paid  out  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  account.  The  first  item  on  the  debit  side  is 
the  amount  of  cash  on  hand.  In  closing  the  account  at 
any  time,  the  total  credits  are  subtracted  from  the  sum 
of  the  debits.  This  remainder  should  correspond  with 
the  amount  of  cash  on  hand  and  is  made  the  last  item 
on  the  credit  side  to  balance  the  account. 

The  cash  account  is  excellent  so  far  as  it  goes  but 
it  does  not  express  the  financial  condition  of  the 
poultry  business  completely. 

SINGLE    ENTRY    ACCOUNTING. 

In  single  entry-  book-keeping  the  accounts  are  writ- 
ten down  but  once.  All  the  entries  are  directly  against 
the  Poultry  Plant  on  the  debit  side  or  in  favor  of  the 
Poultry  Plant  on  the  credit  side. 

The  first  step  is  to  prepare  a  complete  inventory  of 
all  the  property  of  the  poultry  plant  at  the  time  of 
commencing  the  account.  This  list  is  made  on  the 
pages  of  the  account  book  so  that  it  will  be  at  hand 
for  reference  at  any  time.  The  actual  valuation  of 
each  item  of  property  is  stated  and  the  total  amount 
is  ascertained. 

The  account  begins  by  charging  the  Poultry  Plant 
with  the  total  amount  of  the  inventory  list.  On  this, 
the  debit  side  of  the  account,  are  entered  successively 
ar>  they  occur,  all  the  items  of  expense  for  feeds,  labor, 
stock,  tools,  appliances  and  supplies  of  whatever 
kinds,  every  expenditure  in  fact  made  for  the  plant. 

On  the  credit  side  are  placed  as  they  occur,  all  the 
items  of  income,  such  as  receipts  for  eggs,  dressed  or 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      249 

live  fowls,  feathers-, or  anything  else  sold  and  every 
egg  and  chicken  used  for  the  hosehold,  given  away  or 
otherwise  disposed  of,  with  the  price  obtained  or  a 
fair  estimated  value  when  not  disposed  of  by  sale. 

The  accounts  may  run  for  any  period  as  a  year,  half 
year,  month  or  week.  At  the  end  of  the  time  of  ac- 
counting a  new  inventory  is  taken  of  all  the  property 
then  included  in  the  plant.  The  total  amount  of  the 
new  inventory  is  then  entered  on  the  credit  side  of 
the  account.  The  two  sides  of  the  account  are  added 
separately.  Their  difference  is  ascertained.  The  fig- 
ures representing  this  difference  between  the  debit 
and  credit  totals,  if  they  show  a  loss,  are  placed  on  the 
credit  side  to  balance  the  account.  If  these  figures 
show  a  profit  for  the  period  of  accounting  they  aie 
placed  on  the  debit  side  of  the  account.  The  totals  of 
both  sides  then  show  like  amounts,  that  is  they  bal- 
ance. 

In  continuing  the  accounting  for  another  period,  the 
inventory  last  taken  is  entered  on  the  debit  side  ana 
the  account  is  carried  on  by  entries  of  expense  items 
on  the  debit  side  and  of  receipts  on  the  credit  side  as 
before. 

The  same  form  of  poultry  account  which  follows 
is  given  simply  as  a  suggestion  showing  one  way  in 
which  the  entries  may  be  made  and  the  account  bal- 
anced. 

This  simple  form  of  accounting  may  be  expanded  to 
show  the  amounts  of  the  special  lines  of  expense  and 
income  entries.  For  example  the  account  book  or 
sheets  may  be  ruled  with  extra  vertical  lines  to  furn- 
ish columns  additional  to  the  regular  account.  This 
will  permit  of  readily  entering  the  amounts  paid  or 
received  under  headings  such  as  feeds,  wages,  tools, 
(including  machines  and  appliances)  eggs  marketed, 
eggs  for  hatching,  broilers,  roasters,  capons,  breeders, 
supplies  for  the  househould  etc.  etc. 

The   account  thus  has  some  of  the   advantages  of 


250      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

regular  double  entry  without  the  trouble  of  keeping 
separate  books.  It  may  be  amplified  so  as  to  give 
prompt  information  in  any  branch  of  receipts  or  ex- 
penditures. 


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'  3  doz.  eggs,  household  d 

'  pen  breeding  fowl  

'  20  Ibs.  feathers  ©  30c  ... 

'  60  doz.  eggs  @  18c  

'  30  doz.  eggs  @  I7c  . 

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PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      251 

The  following  form  will   sufficiently  illustrate  the 
method  suggested: 


SAMPLE  AMPLIFIED  FORM  OF  POULTRY  ACCOUNT 


DR.             1908           PARADISE   POULTRY   FARM 

March    2 
3 
-         5 
5 
5 
9 
14 
31 

To  inventory  -. 

$1262.00 
9.00 
20.00 
12.00 
.75 
3.00 
12.50 
35.00 

Feeds 

8 

9.00 

12.50 

Work 

8.00 
35.00 

Tools 
8 

20.00 
12.00 

8 

"    10  bu.  wheat  (ft  90c  

"    1  incubator   
"    1  brooder 

"    5  gal.  oil  (S,  15c 

"    picking  broilers 

"    500  bis.  beef  scraps®  S2.50 
"    month's  wages  

Totals 

PARADISE    POULTRY    FARM 


19O8 


CR. 


1 

M  arket 
Eggs 

Br'ilers 

B'ding 
Stock 

House- 
hold 

March    9 

By  30  doz.  eggs  @  20c  8     6.00 

8      6.00 

8 

9 
9 

"    25  pr.  broilers  @  90c  
"    3  doz.  eggs,  household  @  20c 

22.50 
.60 

22.50 

10 

11        16 
"       23 

"    1  pen  breeding  fowl.  — 
"    60  doz  .  eggs  @-  I8c 

8.00 
10.80 

.85 

10.80 

8.00 

.85 

"    5  doz.  eggs,  household  @  I7c 

30 

"    40  pr.  broilers  @  80c  

32.00 

32.00 

Totals 

252      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

DOUBLE-ENTRY    ACCOUNTING. 

If  the  poultry  business  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale 
or  the  keeper  of  fowls  desires  to  keep  thoroughly 
posted  as  to  each  part  of  the  business,  it  is  well  to 
keep  a  set  of  books  by  double-entry. 

The  poultryman  may  choose  to  keep  the  books  him- 
self if  he  has  had  the  requisite  training  or  he  may 
employ  someone  skilled  in  accounting.  Such  a  person 
will  be  familiar  with  business  terms  and  the  signs  and 
abbreviations  used  in  regular  book-keeping.  If  familiar 
with  the  details  of  poultry-keeping,  he  can  keep  the 
poultry  accounts  without  difficulty. 

A  few  special  points  are  given  in  the  hope  that 
poultrymen  who  are  interested  will  be  induced  to  give 
to  accounting  the  attention  which  it  deserves. 

The  main  advantage  of  the  double-entry  system  is 
that  each  branch  and  interest  of  the  business  may 
have  its  separate  account,  kept  ready  for  balancing  at 
any  time.  A  gain  or  loss  in  each  representative  ac- 
count can  be  quickly  ascertained.  There  is  thus  furn- 
ished a  very  effective  guide  in  the  management  of  the 
business. 

The  accounts  as  they  occur  may  be  entered  in  a 
Day  Book.  In  this  book  of  original  entries  there 
should  be  no  erasures. 

From  the  Day  Book  the  items  are  posted  to  the 
Journal  as  soon  as  convenient.  It  is  possible  to  dis- 
pense with  the  Day  Book  and  enter  the  items  directly 
in  the  Journal. 

Three  simple  rules  in  journalizing  are  the  following: 

1.  Debit   whatever   costs    value,    or    the   thing   re- 
ceived. 

2.  Credit   whatever   produces   value,   or   the   thing 
parted  with. 

3.  When  a  debit  is  entered  there  must  be  a  corres- 
ponding credit  entered  and  when  a  credit  is  entered 
there  must  be  a  corresponding  debit  entered. 

The  accounts  are  then  ready  for  posting  to  the 
Ledger,  wherin  are  kept  the  separate  accounts. 

When  an  entry  is  made  on  the  debit  side  of  one  oc- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      253 

count  the  corresponding  credit  is  recorded  in  another 
ledger  account.  For  e'xample  a  check  paid  for  labor 
is  debited  to  Wage  Account  and  credited  to  Bank  Ac- 
count; 

Accounts  may  be  opened  under  separate  heads  with 
any  department  or  interest  of  the  poultry  plant,  such 
as  Real  Estate  (including  Land  and  Buildings), 
Buildings  and  Yards,  Bank,  Income  from  Stock  and 
Eggs  together  or  separately,  General  Expense,  Special 
Expense  of  Feeds,  Labor,  Advertising,  Marketing, 
Postage  and  Sundries. 

If  capital  or  funds  are  to  be  borrowed  there  should 
be  an  account  with  Bills  Payable.  If  sales  are  made 
on  credit  there  will  be  an  account  with  Bills  Receiv- 
able. These  may  include  interest  items  or  if  desired 
there  may  be  a  separate  account  kept  with  Interest. 

Accounts  are  opened  also  with  parties  who  loan 
money  to  the  poultryman  and  such  as  buy  of  him  on 
credit,  or  borrow  of  him. 

It  is  well  to  have  an  account  with  a  bank,  deposit 
all  moneys  received  and  make  all  payments  by  num- 
bered checks  on  the  bank.  Each  check  duly  indorsed 
by  the  receiver  is,  in  fact,  equivalent  to  a  signed  re 
ceipt  for  payment.  Money  required  for  small  cash 
purchases  may  be  drawn  by  check  from  the  bank. 
This  plan  helps  to  simplify  the  accounting  and  checks 
mistakes. 

The  Ledger  becomes  a  collection  of  records  of  the 
income  and'  expenses  of  the  poultry  plant  in  its  differ- 
ent departments  and  at  any  time  the  accountant,  by 
taking  a  trial  balance,  can  show  the  exact  financial 
status  of  the  business. 

Just  before  taking  a  trial  balance  the  bank  -book 
should  be  written  up  to  date.  Add  the  debit  and 
credit  items  of  the  Journal  for  the  period  of  balancing. 
The  totals  of  the  credits  should  equal  the  total  of  the 
debits.  Make  sure  that  all  the  Journal  entries  are 
posted  in  the  Ledger  under  the  proper  headings.  Take 
a  sheet  of  paper  ruled  like  a  ledger  leaf.  Begin  with 
the  first  account  in  the  Ledger,  add  the  debit  and 


254      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

credit  items  separately  and  deduct  the  lesser  total 
from  the  greater.  Enter  the  difference  on  the  debit 
or  credit  side  of  the  balance  sheet  according  to  which 
it  belongs.  Continue  footing  up  the  successive  accounts 
and  place  their  debit  or  credit  balances  on  the  cor- 
responding sides  of  the  balance  sheet.  Accounts 
which  balance  may  be  omitted  from  the  sheet.  Add  the 
two  sides  of  the  balance  sheet  separately.  If  the  tot- 
als are  alike  the  accounts  have  been  properly  posted 
from  the  Journal  to  the  Ledger. 

Turning  now  to  any  account  the  poultryman  can  as- 
certain its  standing  and  know  just  where  his  funds 
are  held. 

SUMMARY   OF   ACCOUNTS. 

In  keeping  the  books  of  the  poultry  plant,  however 
frequently  the  separate  accounts  may  be  balanced  or 
a  trial  balance  taken,  there  is  customarily  an  invent- 
orying and  balancing  at  the  end  of  the  year  which  in- 
cludes the  complete  accounts  of  the  business. 

In  the  annual  closing  of  the  books  due  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  expense  of  taxes  and  insurance, 
mortality  of  stock,  and  depreciation  in  value  of  build- 
ings, fences,  tools  etc.  Some  of  these  items,  being  de- 
finitely known,  will  have  been  recorded  when  they 
occurred.  Others  may  have  to  be  estimated 

New  buildings,  machines,  appliances,  vehicles  and 
young  horses  may,  however,  show  little  if  any  de- 
preciation in  condition  or  value  for  several  years  and 
then,  perhaps,  suddenly  lose  greatly  in  value  or  be- 
come useless  and  therefore  valueless.  In  the  invent- 
ory and  accounts  it  is  possible  to  distribute  the  de- 
preciation over  a  series  of  years  by  what  is  termed 
amortization.  The  buildings  etc.  are  inventoried  at 
cost  and  the  account  debited  yearly  with  a  given  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  for  depreciatiaon.  For  example  it  is 
fair  to  fix  the  average  period  of  effective  usefulness  of 
tools  and  machines  at  ten  years,  in  which  case  the  ac- 
count is  debited  annually  with  one-tenth  (ten  percent.) 
of  the  cost  of  the  article.  If  we  allow  twenty  years 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      255 

as  the  period  of  usefulness  of  poultry  buildings  then 
the  account  may  be  charged  with  five  per  cent,  of  the 
first  cost  of  buildings.  For  mortality  of  stock  a  de- 
duction of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  value  may  be  made 
yearly. 

The  complete  summary  of  accounts  should  show  ac- 
curately the  inventories  of  real  estate,  stock,  tools 
and  feed  on  hand,  the  sources  of  income,  the  amounts 
of  receipts  from  each,  the  expenses  for  the  various 
divisions,  feed,  labor  etc.,  the  cash  assets  and  liabili- 
ties and  the  gain  or  loss  for  the  period  of  accounting. 

While  the  details  of  the  double-entry  system  of  ac- 
counting may  seem  to  be  somewhat  intricate  it  is  in 
reality  easily  applied  to  the  poultry  business  and  the 
results  in  practice  are  exceedingly  satisfactory. 

ADVERTISING. 

Effective  advertising  makes  and  increases  sales. 
Advertising  pays  if  the  business  is  large  enough,  the 
products  sufficiently  plentiful  and  customers  are 
wanted. 

An  attractive  poultry  farm,  beautiful  birds,  excellent 
exhibition  records,  exceptional  laying  records  are  all 
good  advertisements  of  the  plant  and  its  products. 

Exhibiting  line  birds  at  poultry  shows  is  one  of  the 
best  methods  of  advertising  pure-bred  and  fancy 
stock. 

The  man  who  begins  on  a  small  scale  and  gradually 
builds  up  a  large,  profitable  business  is  himself  a 
good  advertisement  and  likewise  usually  a  good  ad- 
vertiser. 

On  the  other  hand  special  advertising  is  costly,  and 
injudicious  advertising  is  one  of  the  easiest  ways  of 
sinking  good  money  beyond  recall. 

ADVERTISING    MARKET    PRODUCTS. 

If  the  poultry  products  are  to  be  sent  into  the  whole- 
sale markets  and  disposed  of  on  commission,  advertis- 
ing is  usually  unnecessary. 

The  poultryman  may,  in  this  case,  consider  the  ad- 


256      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


visability  of  attempting  to  secure  a  better  disposal  of 
his  products  by  advertising.  If  he  finds  that  the  cost 
of  advertising  and  increased  expense  of  preparing  and 
delivering  the  goods  would  exceed  or  equal  the  increas- 
ed returns  there  is  no  inducement  to  advertise. 

If  the  producer  decides  to  seek  for  private  custo- 
mers to  take  his  particularly  fine  products,  at  extra 
prices,  he  may  begin  advertising  by  personal  solicita- 
tion or  correspondence.  Having  made  a  beginning  he 
should  see  that  the  quality  of  his  products  is  a  contin- 
ual advertisement.  Each  satisfied  and  pleased  cus- 
tomer is  likely  to  speak  a  favorable  word  for  the  prod- 
ucts and  help  to  win  new  customers  for  the  poultry- 
man  to  supply.  The  producer,  if  he  wishes  to  extend 
his  trade,  should  make  sure  that  he  can  supply  the 
goods  of  the  quality  desired  and  at  the  times  wanted. 
He  should  sell  only  first  class  stuff  to  these  special 
customers.  If  he  has  second  class  products  to  dispose 
of  at  any  time  he  can  send  them  iuto  the  general  mai- 
ket. 

The  cartons  and  crates  or  packages  in  which  eggs 
and  dressed  fowl  are  delivered  to  customers  should  be 
neatly  and  attractively  labelled  to  advertise  the  poultry 
farm  and  its  productions.  Printed  cards  or  leaflets 
may  be  placed  inside  the  package  to  further  advertise 
the  merits  of  the  contents. 

If  increase  of  trade  is  sought  it  may  pay  to  adver- 
tise in  the  city  daily  paper  or  the  weekly  paper  that 
circulates  among  the  families  who  are  desired  as  pat- 
rcns  of  the  progressive  poultry  plant. 

Fine,  broilers,  roasters,  capons  may  be  advertised  by 
letters  sent  to  proprietors  or  managers  of  hotels,  res- 
taurants, clubs,  caterers  or  fancy  grocers.  Samples  of 
the  products  may  accompany  the  letters  if  the  advertis- 
ing will  be  made  more  effective  thereby. 

ADVERTISING    BREEDING    AND   FANCY    STOCK. 

The  poultryman  who  would  cater  to  the  demand  or 
create  a  demand  for  better  fowls  will  do  well,  in  the 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      257 

first  place,  to  select -a  breed  or  variety  that  is  popular 
because  of  both  its  beauty  and  its  utility. 

The  breeder  who  introduces  fine  pure-bred  poultry 
into  a  community  usually  finds  that  the  fowls  adver- 
tise themselves.  There  often  is  opportunity  to  sell 
surplus  stock  and  eggs  for  hatching,  at  an  advance 
over  the  market  price,  in  the  neighborhood.  A  bulletin 
board  at  the  entrance  to  the  farm,  by  the  highway,  or 
a  notice  posted  at  the  local  store  or  post  office  pro- 
vides an  economical  and  effective  means  of  advertising 
the  products.  The  notice  should  be  clearly,  correctly 
and  carefully  expressed  or  it  may  advertise  the 
poultryman  in  an  undesirable  way. 

ADVERTISING   IN    PERIODICALS. 

If  the  breeder  of  fine  fowls  knows  that  his  surplus 
of  chickens  and  eggs  will  be  greater  than  needed  to 
supply  the  local  demands  he  seeks  a  means  of  extend- 
ing the  area  of  his  sales. 

Probably  the  best  mediums  for  advertising  pure-bred 
stock  are  the  leading  poultry  journals.  These  papers 
have  been  informing  their  readers  for  a  long  time  of 
the  characteristics  and  relative  value  of  the  standard 
breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry.  The  readers  have 
learned  to  appreciate  quality  of  stock  and  eggs. 

Agricultural  papers  that  give  considerable  attention 
to  poultry  interests  are  sometimes  good  mediums  for 
poultry  advertising. 

Magazines  that  treat  of  country  and  suburban  life 
and  interests,  of  outdoor  recreations  and  household  ec- 
onomy may  prove  useful  in  making  known  the  pcultry- 
man's  desires  for  purchasers  of  his  fine  productions. 

The  intending  advertiser  should  ascertain  as  definite- 
ly as  possible,  before  placing  his  advertising,  what  per- 
iodicals reach  the  class  of  people  who  would  wish  to 
purchase  his  line  of  products.  Some  papers  are  put 
ronized  by  subscribers  who  care  mainly  for  fancy  or 
exhibition  stock  while  others  are  favorites  with  such 
a**  are  interested  chiefly  in  breeds,  valuable  for  their 
useful  products.  Still  others  cater  to  the  large  and 


258      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

increasing  class  of  people  who  are  interested  in  breeds 
noted  for  both  fancy  and  utility  qualities. 

It  may  be  somewhat  difficult,  at  first,  to  select  the 
best  magazines  for  one's  purpose,  but  after  a  little  ex- 
perience with  several  mediums,  watching  the  sales 
resulting  from  advertising  in  each,  the  advertiser  can 
readily  decide  which  best  answers  his  purpose. 

SEASONABLE  ADVERTISING. 

The  advertisements  should  be  seasonable.  While  it 
is  always  desirable  to  keep  one's  advertising  going 
continuously  it  is  advantageous  to  vary  the  wording 
according  to  the  season  and  the  special  products  for 
sale  at  different  times. 

During  late  winter  and  early  spring  readers  may  be 
informed  of  the  opportunities  to  obtain  eggs  for  hatch- 
ing. 

In  early  summer,  after  the  breeding  season  is  past, 
the  poultryman  may  wish  to  dispose  of  his  old  fowl 
to  make  room  for  the  young  stock  coming  on.  He 
advertises  accordingly. 

In  late  summer  and  early  autumn  there  is  a  call  for 
exhibition  stock.  Cockerels  for  breeders  and  pullets 
for  layers  are  much  in  demand  later  in  the  fall. 

The  producer  makes  known  his  readiness  to  supply 
the  demands  of  possible  purchasers,  through  the  adver- 
tising columns  of  the  papers  patronized  by  these  peo- 
ple. When  he  has  no  special  stock  or  product  to  dis- 
pose of  he  uses  his  advertising  space  to  keep  his  poultry 
plant  in  the  remembrance  of  people  who  may  wish  to 
purchase  its  products  later. 

SIZE   OF   ADVERTISEMENT. 

The  space  to  be  used  for  an  advertisement  depends 
upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  products  to  be 
offered  for  sale,  the  nature  of  the  proposition  to  be 
made  and  the  funds  available  for  advertising. 

The  producer  does  well  to  begin  with  a  small  ad- 
vertisement, which  may  prove  to  be  sufficient  for  his 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      259 

purpose.  It  will  be-,easy  to  increase  the  size  of  the 
advertisement  if  the  circumstances  warrant  it. 

Doubling  the  size  of  the  advertisement  does  not  usually 
result  in  doubling  the  number  of  inquiries  or  sales. 

The  cost  of  enlarged  advertising  is  great  and  Is 
warranted  only  by  correspondingly  large  returns. 

Large  space,  if  skilfully  used,  will  attract  increased 
attention,  enhance  reputation  and  help  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  strong  standing  for  the  poultryman 
and  his  plant,  among  poultry  people. 

PREPARATION  OF   ADVERTISEMENTS. 

An  advertisement  should  be  worth  reading.  It  should 
tell  its  tale  strikingly,  straightforwardly  and  succinctly. 

If  the  stock  or  product  to  be  offered  for  sale  has 
peculiar  points  of  value  or  particularly  strong  points 
of  superiority  these  should  be  emphasized  in  the  ad- 
vertising. 

Winnings  at  important  poultry  shows  may  well  be 
mentioned  in  seeking  to  sell  exhibition  birds  or  eggs 
and  chickens  from  such  prize  stock. 

Records  of  abundant  laying,  secured  by  trap-nesting, 
may  prove  drawing  features  in  advertising  breeding 
stock. 

A  peculiarly  attractive  or  valuable  characteristic  of 
fine  feathering,  excellent  breeding,  prolific  production 
of  eggs,  or  strong  body  growth,  if  strikingly  expressed 
will  arouse  interest.  If  this  can  be  expressed  in  the 
terse  terms  of  a  catching  clause  or  startling  sentence 
the  same  may  appear  in  each  advertisement  >and  will 
give  to  the  advertising  a  uniformity  and  continuity 
that  are  desirable. 

If  the  poultryman  lacks  the  talent  for  writing  ad- 
vertisements he  may  find  it  desirable  and  profitable  to 
employ  an  expert  advertiser  to  prepare  the  advertise- 
ments for  him. 

If  his  advertising  is  extensive  and  especially  if  he 
wishes  to  make  use  of  many  mediums  he  may  find  it 
advantageous  to  place  this  business  with  a  reliable 
advertising  agency. 


260      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

ANSWERING    INQUIRIES. 

The  advertising  in  the  newspaper  is  only  a  begin- 
ning. Inquiries  should  be  personally  answered  by  let- 
ters giving  prices  and  terms,  and  circulars,  catalogs 
or  booklets,  explaining  completely  the  particular  points 
of  the  products  offerred  for  sale  and  the  advatages  of 
their  purchase. 

If  the  letter  be  typewritten  the  circular  may  well  be 
printed  in  type-writer  type  or  produced  by  manifolding 
a  type-written  letter. 

If  a  booklet  or  catalog  is  used  it  should  be  carefully 
prepared,  neatly,  clearly  and  attractively  printed  and 
if  possible  illustrated  with  cuts  of  the  poultry  plant, 
of  prize  birds,  etc.,  to  help  induce  the  reader  to  be- 
come a  purchaser. 

For  the  correspondence  attractive  letter-heads 
should  be  used  which  will  futher  advertise  the  business. 
All  correspondence  with  inquiring  parties  should  be 
prompt,  persuasive  and  to  the  point.  Courteousness 
in  expression,  correctness  in  grammar  and  spelling, 
and  clearness  in  writing  as  well  as  meaning,  are  char* 
cateristics  that  will  count  in  making  sales  to  corres- 
pondents. 

Reference  to  a  local  bank  or  other  financial  institu- 
tion will  conduce  to  confidence  in  the  business  stand- 
ing of  the  advertiser. 

If  the  first  letter  and  accompanying  printed  matter 
fail  to  win  an  order  or  secure  further  inquiry,  another 
letter  may  be  sent,  politely  emphasizing  the  desira- 
bility of  the  correspondent  becoming  a  purchaser. 

Some  advertisers  "follow  up"  the  inquirer  with  suc- 
cessive letters  until  an  order  is  secured  or  the  case  ap- 
pears hopeless.  Others  continue  to  send  letters  even 
after  the  addressee  lies  silent  in  the  grave. 

FILLING    ORDERS. 

The  advertising  is  continued  by  the  appearance  and 
quality  of  the  stock  or  product  selected  to  fill  the 
orders  which  are  received. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      261 

Poor  products  wfll-  promptly  nullify  good  advertis- 
ing. It  pays  to  satisfy  all  purchasers  except  "sharks". 

KEYING. 

The  advertiser  should  make  use  of  his  experience 
in  advertising  to  determine  the  placing  of  futher  ad- 
vertisements. 

He  must  ascertain  which  papers  have  hrought  small 
returns  (if  any),  which  large  returns  and  which  the 
best  results,  fn  order  to  accomplish  this  purpose  the 
advertisement  in  each  medium  should  be  keyed,  that 
is,  it  should  have  a  peculiarity  of  address  or  other 
feature  which  will  enable  the  advertiser  to  distinguish 
the  paper  which  brings  each  inquiry. 

This  is  readily  brought  about  by  giving  the  address 
of  the  advertiser  differently  in  each  medium.  A  dif- 
ferent street  number,  a  change  in  the  P.  O.  box  num- 
ber or  a  department  number  or  letter  may  be  used. 
As  the  inquiries  come  in  they  are  listed  according  to 
the  keying.  If  the  inquirer  fails  to  use  the  keyed  part 
of  the  advertiser's  address  the  answer  to  his  letter 
may  contain  a  request  that  he  state  where  he  saw  the 
advertisement  which  induced  him  to  write.  An  addres- 
sed, stamped  envelope  or  postal  card  may  be  enclosed 
to  insure  a  reply. 

TABULATING    RESULTS. 

In  order  to  know  the  actual  results  of  advertising  in 
different  mediums  the  advertiser  should  tabulate  the 
data  made  available  by  the  keying  of  the  advertise- 
ments. 

This  is  easily  done  by  means  of  a  card  system.  A 
card  is  provided  for  each  journal  carrying  an  adver- 
tisement. The  number  of  inquiries  resulting  from 
each  paper  is  recorded  daily. 

On  the  same  card  may  also  be  noted  the  number  of 
sales  resulting  from  these  inquiries. 

A  little  figuring  enables  the  advertiser  to  determine 
accurately,  for  a  given  period  of  advertising,  the  num- 
ber of  inquiries  and  resulting  sales  that  have  corns 


262      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

from  each  journal.  Knowing  the  cost  of  the  advertis- 
ing he  can  compare  the  expense  with  the  number  of 
inquiries  and  ascertain  the  cost  per  inquiry.  Further 
calculating  will  give  the  expense  in  advertising  per 
order  or  sale  and  per  dollar  of  sales. 

The  poultryman  thus  learns  at  first  hand,  the  com- 
parative value  of  the  different  mediums  for  his  con- 
ditions and  purposes.  There  could  be  no  better  guide 
for  his  further  advertising. 

INDEXING  INQUIRIES. 

An  extension  of  the  system  of  records  may  include  a 
card  listing  of  inquiries.  When  an  inquiry  comes  in 
the  date  of  receiving,  name,  P.  0.  address,  and  source 
of  inquiry  are  noted  on  a  card.  The  date  of  sending 
answer  and  of  succeding  letters  and  replies  may  also 
be  entered  on  this  card. 

The  cards  are  filed  alphabetically,  unless  they  are 
numerous.  If  very  many  inquiries  are  listed  the  cards 
may  be  filed  by  States  and  Post  Offices. 

Reference  to  a  card  will  show  how  much  corres- 
pondence has  been  required  to  secure  a  sale. 

In  case  an  inquiry  comes  from  a  town  where  an 
order  has  been  filled  satisfactorily,  the  poultryman  can 
refer  the  inquirer  to  the  previous  customer  and  very 
likely  secure  another  order. 

By  this  plan  of  indexing  a  list  of  the  addresses  of 
many  persons  interested  in  the  poultryman's  products 
is  obtained  and  these  may  be  informed  by  mail  when 
he  has  futher  sales  -to  make. 

Letters  from  correspondents  should  be  kept  in  con- 
venient files  for  reference  and  copies  of  replies  are 
also  preserved.  The  poultryman,  when  he  notices  by 
an  indexed  card,  that  an  inquirer  has  failed  to  place 
an  order,  may  refer  to  the  correspondence  and  usually 
determine  why  a  sale  was  not  effected.  Having  the 
name  and  address  of  the  inquirer  he  may  be  notified 
of  new  opportunities  to  purchase  desirable  stock  or 
eggs  for  hatching  when  the  poultryman  has  them  to 
offer. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      263 


It  may  appear  to  £he  practical  poultry  man  that  the 
keeping  of  records  and  accounts,  the  listing,  and  tab- 
ulating of  advertising  data,  the  filing  of  inquires  and 
of  replies  and  the  conscientious  studying  of  all  these 
records  involves  much  labor  with  perhaps  meager 
results.  Fair  trial  of  such  of  the  system  as  suits  his 
case,  will  surely  prove  that  the  work  is  easy  and  takes 
but  little  time  daily,  while  the  information  thus  gained 
will  aid  him  greatly. 


Courtsey  Mr.  Cozzens 


CHAPTER  XII 
Methods  of  Management 

Study  and  practice  should  travel  together  in  the 
poultry  business.  As  the  consequence  of  earnest  study- 
ing and  accompanying  experience  in  keeping  fowls, 
there  should  be  constant  progress  in  poultry  culture. 

Actual  personal  care  of  the  fowls  gives  the  thinking 
poultryman  a  clear  insight  as  to  the  application  of 
the  principles  which  he  has  studied.  It  clinches  the 
facts  which  he  has  learned  and  makes  them  a  part 
of  his  experience. 

The  poultryman  who  faithfully  studies  his  subject 
and  starts  on  a  small  scale  in  the  keeping  of  poultry, 
solving  one  by  one  the  problems  of  breeding,  feeding, 
incubating,  brooding,  rearing,  finishing  and  marketing 
according  to  his  own  circumstances  and  ascertaining 
what  local  conditions  favor  or  obstruct  his  progress,  is 
prepared  to  push  forward  intelligently  and  successfully 
in  his  chosen  calling. 

While  learning  to  overcome  the  obstacles  and  to 
utilize  the  advantages  peculiar  to  his  environment,  he 
finds  out  what  lines  of  poultry  keeping  are  most  pro- 
fitable and  best  suited  to  his  purpose  amidst  his  par- 
ticular surroundings.  He  is  then  in  a  position  to  de- 
velop his  business  along  those  lines  strongly  and  wisely. 

There  is  supreme  satisfaction  in  watching  a  poultry 
business  grow  gradually,  under  one's  guidance,  from  a 
small  beginning  to  something  worth  while.  This  is 
accomplished  by  good  management. 

GENERAL    MANAGEMENT. 

Management  is  defined  as  the  manner  of  treating, 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      265 

directing,  carrying  on  or  using  for  a  purpose.  The 
purpose  in  poultry  culture  should  he  well  defined  in 
the  mind  and  plans  of  the  manager. 

The  directing  of  a  business  poultry  farm  should  be 
such  as  to  secure  a  yearly  profit  while  the  flocks  and 
the  farm  are  constantly  improving  in  value. 

For  ideal  management  the  conditions  and  factors 
should  be  under  complete  control  and  the  operations 
in  detail  should  be  executed  systematically,  promptly 
and  energetically. 

BEGINNING    THE    BUSINESS. 

Two  important  matters  for  the  beginner  to  decide 
are  the  time  of  commencing  the  keeping  of  fowls  and 
the  selection  of  a  breed  suited  to  his  purpose. 

SEASON  FOE  STABTING: — A  simple  rule  is  to  begin 
when  ready.  Trouble  usually  comes  from  beginning 
before  one  has  sufficiently  studied  the  subject  or  pro- 
vided an  adequate  equipment. 

In  the  spring  time  the  impulse  to  start  things  is 
strong.  If  one  wishes  to  begin  by  purchasing  eggs 
for  hatching  there  is  no  better  time  and  only  a  small 
equipment  is  necessary.  Spring  conditions  favor  suc- 
cessful hatching  and  the  natutal  influences  are  condu- 
cive to  thrifty  growth  of  the  thicks. 

If  the  poultry  culturist  starts  on  new  ground  where 
poultry  has  not  previously  been  kept  and  employs  arti- 
ficial methods  of  incubating  and  brooding  or  exercises 
sufficient  precaution,  in  natural  hatching  and  brooding, 
he  may  avoid  the  dangers  that  come  because  of  para- 
sites and  disease  germs  often  prevalent  on  an  old 
poultry  plant. 

The  interested  enthusiastic  amateur  will  usually  be  so 
attentive  and  careful  in  his  work  with  the  chicks  that, 
even  though  inexperienced,  he  will  be  successful  and 
skill  will  come  by  continued  correct  practice. 

If  one  prefers  to  start  by  purchasing  breeding  stock 
he  may,  by  the  exercise  of  patience  and  watching  for 
an  opportunity,  secure  good  tested  breeding  fowls'  after 
the  spring  season  is  past.  Excellent  mature  stock  is 


266      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

sometimes  obtainable  in  early  summer  at  very  reason- 
able prices.  The  chickens  raised  from  the  eggs  of  these 
birds  the  first  year  will  be  late  hatched  but  should  show 
the  quality  of  the  stock. 

Well  developed  pullets  may  occasionally  be  bought  in 
the  fall  but  are  likely  to  be  high  in  price. 

Good  stock  purchased  at  almost  any  season  should 
soon  begin  to  bring  returns  in  eggs. 

The  experience  of  the  first  season  in  keeping  the 
fowls  will  be  a  good  preparation  for  successful  opera- 
tions the  following  spring. 

If  the  poultryman  has  his  buildings  to  construct,  the 
best  season  for  starting  is  the  early  fall,  unless  the  lo- 
cality is  subject  to  heavy  or  continuous  rain  storms. 
Usually  in  the  autumn  the  roads  are  in  excellent  con- 
dition for  carting  the  lumber.  After  the  summer's  heat 
the  lumber  should  be  in  dry  condition.  The  early 
autumn  days  are  usually  pleasant  and  sufficiently  cool 
for  comfortable  working.  The  houses  become  well  dried 
out,  as  they  should  be,  previous  to  using  them  for  shel- 
tering fowls. 

If  the  poultryman  constructs  the  poultry  buildings 
himself  or  wishes  to  aid,  in  their  construction,  he  may 
choose  a  season  of  the  year  for  this  work  when  he  can 
best  attend  to  it. 

SELECTING  THE  BREED: — The  poultry  keeper  should 
choose  a  pure-bred  variety  of  fowls.  Accurate  descrip- 
tions of  the  numerous  accepted  breeds  are  given  in  the 
copyrighted  Standard  of  Perfection  published  by  the 
American  Poultry  Association.  There  is  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  the  choosing  of  a  variety  well  suited  to  the 
local  conditions  and  the  purpose  of  the  poultryman. 

If  the  poultry  keeper  seeks  to  obtain  eggs  in  large 
numbers  he  will  probably  select  some  variety  of  fowl 
of  the  Mediterranean  class  which  includes  the  Leg- 
horns, Minorcas,  Black  Spanish,  Anconas  and  Ham- 
burgs.  Fowls  of  this  class  are  naturally  great  layers 
of  white-shelled  eggs  and  certain  varieties  and  families 
have  been  bred  for  egg  production  for  a  long  time. 


PROGRESSIVE    POULTRY    CULTURE      267 

Though   small    in   size   they   are   also   toothsome   table 
fowl. 

If  the  poultryman  desires  to  secure  both  abundance 
of  eggs  and  excellent  market  fowl  he  will  find  the 
American  class  of  fowl  well  suited  to  his  dual  purpose. 
The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes  and  Rhode  Island 
Reds  are  the  leading  breeds  of  this  class. 

If  poultry  meat  is  the  main  object  of  the  business 
he  may  see  fit  to  select  some  breed  of  the  Asiatic  class 
such  as  the  Light  or  Dark  Brahma  or  one  of  the  Co- 
chin varieties. 

The  poultry  fancier  who  wishes  to  keep  fowls  for 
the  pleasure  of  having  feathered  pets  or  breeding  ex- 
hibition birds,  can  choose  any  of  the  attractive  varieties 
of  the  classes  already  mentioned  or  may  select  some 
thing  suitable  from  the  Games,  the  French  or  English 
breeds  or  the  beautiful  Bantams. 

While  the  breeds  of  poultry  are  grouped  into  classes 
according  to  some  general  or  peculiar  qualities  which 
they  have  in  common,  it  is  true  that  under  the  man- 
agement of  skilful  breeders  almost  any  of  the  standard 
varieties  may  be  bred  to  excel  in  any  desirable  char- 
acteristic. 

For  example  although  the  Brahmas  and  Plymouth 
Rocks  are  particularly  well  adapted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  large  roasters  and  capons  there  have  been  de- 
veloped strains  of  these  breeds  which  excel  in  the  lay- 
ing of  abundant  brown-shelled  eggs.  Any  of  the  varie- 
ties which  are  valuable  because  of  their  egg  and  flesh 
production  may,  in  the  hands  of  the  fanciers,  be  bred 
for  fine  feathers. 

The  poultryman  is  usually  wise  if  he  selects  one  ra- 
ther than  many  varieties  of  fowl  for  his  poultry  farm. 
He  may  think  it  advisable  to  try  several  varieties  and 
by  a  process  of  testing  and  exclusion  determine  which 
one  is  best  adapted  to  his  conditions  and  his  purpose. 

DIFFICULTIES     IN     MANAGEMENT. 

In  managing  a  poultry  plant  there  may  be  serious 
study,  perfect  planning  and  energetic  execution  of  du- 


268      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

ties  and  yet  lack  of  complete  success  because  of  un- 
foreseen or  uncontrolled  influences  that  affect  the  liv- 
ing fowls  unfavorably. 

The  successful  manager  should  be  master  of  details 
but  some  of  the  factors  of  poultry  farming  are  occa- 
sionally beyond  control.-  The  management  has  to  deal 
not  alone  with  poultry  but  also  with  people.  Skill  is 
required  in  caring  for  the  former  and  tact  in  dealing 
with  the  latter. 

The  methods  of  the  poultry  manager  must  needs  be 
somewhat  elastic  because  the  conditions  can  not  al- 
ways be  forcasted  or  completely  controlled.  However 
well  the  poultryman  may  plan,  the  details  of  operation, 
when  it  comes  to  practical  execution  in  managing'  hens 
and  humans  there  is  liability  of  interference  because 
of  inclement  weather,  enemies,  evil  habits,  poisons,  sick- 
ness, foolishness,  etc. 

The  poultryman  should,  therefore,  be  capable  of  in- 
telligent calculation  as  to  probabilities  and  resourceful 
in  emergencies. 

THE  WEATHER: — The  main  point  in  making  allow- 
ance for  unfavorable  weather  is  to  be  always  prepared 
for  any  kind  of  weather  and  never  to  be  caught  napping. 
The  equipment  of  the  poultry  plant  in  structures 
should  be  ample  for  protection  and  the  shelters  easily 
available  when  needed.  Great  numbers  of  little  chicks 
are  sacrificed  yearly  because  of  lack  of  sufficient  shel- 
ters conveniently  placed  and  quickly  accessible  in  case 
of  sudden  electric  storms.  Chickens  are  not  always  wise 
but  they  are  very  much  creatures  of  habit.  If  they 
become  accustomed  to  seeking  protection  from  the  heat 
of  the  sun  in  certain  places  they  are  very  likely  to 
seek  the  same  shelters  in  a  pouring  rain  or  sweeping 
wind. 

Making  the  shade  shelters  on  the  ranges  safe  harbors 
from  winds  and  wetness  will  allow  many  chickens  to 
escape  destruction.  Many  a  fine  brood  of  chicks  is 
drowned  out  because  of  lack  of  forethought  in  locating 
the  brood  coops.  These  should  be  placed  on  elevated, 
well  drained  spots  and  never  in  hollows  or  level  sit- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      269 

uations  where  rain-water  or  flood-water  is  liable  to  col- 
lect into  puddles  or  ponds. 

During  spells  of  inclement  weather  the  poultryman 
should  be  alert  to  prevent  injury  or  loss  to  his  flocks 
or  equipment.  He  should  himself  see  that  the  fowls 
are  safe  and  comfortable.  He  should  be  watchful  of 
the  action  of  storms  and  floods,  heat  and  cold,  upon  his 
poultry  plant  and  its  inhabitants  in  order  that  he  may 
promptly  remedy  any  untoward  condition  and  prevent 
possible  damage. 

Deaths  by  thousands  occur  annually  in  the  artificial 
brooding  of  winter  hatched  chicks  because  of  lack  of 
ample  heating  power  in  the  brooder  houses.  If  the 
chicks  cannot  be  kept  comfortably  warm  during  the 
worst  weather  the  probable  results  will  be  chilling  with 
consequent  diarrhea  and  subsequent  death. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  eggs  are  not  laid  in  the 
fall  and  early  winter  because  fine  flocks  of  pullets  are 
placed  in  houses  that  have  not  been  properly  dried 
out,  are  not  properly  ventilated  or  are  subject  to  ex- 
cessive drafts.  Chilly,  damp  weather,  under  such  con- 
ditions affects  the  fowls  injuriously. 

In  all  that  relates  to  the  weather  the  poultry  manager 
should  have  the  fullest  control  possible  in  order  that 
the  fowls  may  be  kept  comfortable  and  yield  profitable 
products. 

ENEMIES: — Sometimes  the  unexpected  happens  and 
the  poultry  plant  suffers  by  the  depredations  of  enemies. 

RATS  AND  MICE: — Small  rats  and  mice  may  not  de- 
stroy chickens,  but  if  opportunity  offers  they  devour 
or  injure  poultry  feeding  stuffs.  These  little  pests 
are  also  liable  to  bring  tape-worms,  other  parasites  and 
disease  germs  into  the  chickens'  quarters. 

Large  rats  are  devastating  destroyers  of  chickens. 
They  delight  in  murderir.g  little  chickens.  A  blood- 
thirsty rat  can  deal  out  death  to  fifty  chicks  in  as  many 
minutes.  Brooder  chicks  are  their  especial  victims.  A 
veteran  rat  will  catch  a  chick  by  the  nape  of  the  neck 
or  back  of  the  wings,  and  drive  his  sharp  teeth  into 
the  spinal  nerve  causing  almost  immediate  death.  The 


270      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 


dying  chick  is  then  hidden  under  the  brooder  or  in 
any  convenient  place  and  the  rat  returns  for  his  next 
victim.  Unless  interrupted  the  slaughter  may  continue 
until  the  brood  of  chicks  is  exterminated.  To  catch 
a  cunning  old  rat  will  sometimes  tax  the  patience  and 
ingenuity  of  the  shrewdest  poultryman  to  the  utter- 
most. 

The  most  effective  method  of  capturing  these  villian- 
ous  vermin  is  by  means  of  steel  traps  or  guillotine 
traps.  Several  of  these  traps  may  be  set  in  the  runways 
of  the  rats  and  looked  at  daily.  Sometimes  the  traps 
should  be  baited  with  bread,  cheese,  flesh  or  other  food. 
At  other  times  the  traps  or  some  of  them  should  be  left 
unbaited.  They  may  be  left  sprung  in  the  run  ways 
for  several  days  and  then  set.  They  may  be  left  un- 
covered or  have  a  few  feathers  or  light  chaff  scattered 
over  them.  Many  rats  can  be  caught  if  the  trapper 
will  give  his  attention  to  the  setting  of  the  traps  daily 
and  change  his  tactics  frequently. 

The  French  wire  traps  will  sometimes  catch  large 
numbers  of  rats.  Placing  them  where  the  rats  have 
passage  ways,  they  are  often  very  effective  for  a  while. 
Leaving  a  live  rat  in  the  trap  sometimes  helps  to  entice 
others  to  enter. 

Poisoning  by  means  of  the  rat  killers  sold  on  the 
market  or  by  using  arsenic,  phosphorus  or  strychnine 
in  bread  or  flesh  may  be  practiced  effectively  in  some 
cases. 

Mixing  flour  with  plaster  paris,  half  and  half,  and 
placing  the  mixture  in  a  saucer,  with  a  dish  of  water 
near  by,  may  tempt  rats  or  mice  to  their  death.  If  they 
eat  of  this  mixture  and  then  drink  water  the  plaster 
solidifies  within  their  digestive  organs  and  prevents 
their  further  depredations. 

A  cask  may  be  provided  with  a  cover  nicely  balanced 
at  its  top  so  that  if  a  rat  or  mouse  steps  upon  the  cover 
to  get  food  he  will  be  promptly  toppled  into  water  with 
which  the  cask  is  partially  filled. 

In  using  traps,  poisons  and  other  methods  which  are 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      271 

dangerous  to  chickens  the  latter  should  be  fully  pro- 
tected from  risk  of  injury. 

CATS: — The  poultryman's  or  his  neighbor's  pet  cat, 
innocent  feline,  sometimes  grows  fat  on  chicken  fare. 
Wandering,  homeless  and  semi-wild  cats  may  make  sad 
inroads  in  the  flocks  of  chickens. 

The  home  cat  should  be  trained  when  a  kitten  to 
leave  the  chickens  alone.  Punish  the  kitten  even  if  she 
jumps  at  a  chicken  in  play.  An  excellent  method  of 
correction  for  cat  or  kitten  is  to  place  her  within  the 
coop  of  the  mother  hen  and  let  the  latter  give  the 
feline  a  lesson  in  pecking,  at  close  range.  A  cat  that 
is  a  good  ratter  and  that  will  not  injure  chickens  is  a 
desirable  creature  to  have  in  the  poultry  plant.  Several 
such  may  well  be  kept  as  a  prohibition  to  rats  and  mice. 

DOGS: — A  good  dog  will  prove  a  very  desirable  de- 
fender of  the  flocks  and  property  of  the  poultry  plant 
from  all  other  animals,  including  thieves.  Bull  dogs, 
Collies  and  Rat  Terriers  have  proved  particularly  good 
protectors  of  poultry. 

Some  dogs  however  will  catch  chickens.  There  is 
especial  danger  from  this  source  if  vagabond  dogs  are 
allowed  .free  range  in  the  community.  Fences  often 
fail  to  protect  fowls  from  such  enemies  especially  if 
they  travel  in  couples  or  companies  on  their  foraging 
expeditions. 

Any  prowling  cur  that  is  a  menace  to  the  poultry 
should  be  shot  dead  if  the  law  permits  and  there  is  no 
danger  of  reprisal  by  an  angered  owner.  The  least 
that  can  be  done  is  to  pepper  the  trespassing  canine 
with  bird-shot  as  a  sign  to  keep  his  distance. 

FOXES: — Foxes  are  very  cunning  but  also  very  cau- 
tious. If  these  lovers  of  poultry  and  enemies  of  poultry- 
keepers  are  liable  to  visit  the  poultry  plant  a  good 
fox  hound  may  prove  useful.  Traps  or  gun  may  be 
brought  into  play.  If  a  fox  den  is  discovered  its  in- 
mates may  perhaps  be  smoked  out  by  burning  brim- 
stone. Foxes  do  not  however  usually  commit  their 
depredations  in  the  neighborhood  of  their  dens. 

To  arouse  the  suspicions  of  a  fox  and  cause  him  to 


272      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

avoid  the  hen  house,  loose  pieces  of  chain  or  metal  may 
be  hung  at  the  places  where  the  fox  would  seek  to  enter. 
Another  precaution  is  to  brush  tar  upon  the  wire  fencing 
of  the  yard  near  the  fowl  house. 

COYOTES: — Where    coyotes    are    plentiful,    poisoning* 
with  strychnine  as  much  as  can  be  held  on  a  small  knife- 
blade,  concealed  in  a  piece  of  flesh,  is  practiced  success- 
fully. 

MINKS,  OPOSSUMS,  SKUNKS,  AND  WEASELS: — These 
creatures  prey  upon  poultry  if  opportunity  offers.  They 
may  sometimes  be  caught  in  steel  traps.  The  skunk's 
burrow  should  be  sought  and  if  found  carbon  bisulfide 
may  be  used  to  destroy  its  inmate.  This  compound  is 
a  liquid  which  exposed  to  the  air,  quickly  changes  to 
an  inflammable  gas.  Placing  about  two  ounces  of  the 
liquid  in  the  burrow  and  quickly  closing  all  entrances 
will  cause  the  suffocation  of  the  inhabitant  within.  As 
ths  gas  is  explosive  no  lighted  match  or  lantern  should 
be  brought  near  it. 

Prevent  the  presence  of  any  or  all  of  the  animal 
enemies  in  poultry  houses  at  night  by  covering  pos- 
sible entrances  with  wire  netting,  screening  or  shutters 
of  some  kind. 

Reduce  the  chances  of  visitations  of  animals  of  prey 
by  keeping  the  premises  near  the  hen  house  clear  of 
stone  heaps  or  walls  and  piles  of  brush,  old  lumber  or 
other  rubbish,  which  might  provide  harboring  places 
for  the  robbers. 

HAWKS  AND  CROWS: — The  winged  enemies  of  our 
domestic  fowls  prove  very  destructive  in  some  localities. 
One  swoops  down  upon  a  flock  of  chickens,  seizes  a 
victim  and  flies  away  with  it.  A  good  dog,  if  on  the 
alert,  will  prevent  such  visitations. 

The  poultryman,  if  he  is  a  good  marksman,  may  use 
a  rifle  or  shot  gun  to  reduce  the  number  of  crows  and 
hawks  in  his  locality.  Crows  are  not  good  mathema- 
ticians. If  two  persons  go  out  to  a  hiding  place  and 
%one  returns,  the  one  who  remains  will  very  likely  have 
opportunity  for  a  shot  at  the  crows. 

Hawks  have  been   successfully  trapped   by  setting 


PROGRESSIVE   P6ULTRY    CULTURE      273 


a  steel  trap  on  a  piece  of  board  nailed  at  the  top  of  a 
high  pole. 

Crows  are  very  suspicious,  cautious  creatures  and 
may  sometimes  be  kept  away  by  running  twine  from 
tree  to  tree  or  on  poles  across  the  ranges  or  yards  of 
the  chickens.  Bright  strips  of  tin  strung  upon  the  lines 
may  help  to  keep  the  crows  at  a  distance.  Scare  crows 
are  in  some  cases  effective  and  in  other  cases  useless 
in  preventing  the  visits  of  the  crows.  A  figure  closely 
resembling  the  human  form,  having  loose  sleeves  that 
fill  and  flutter  in  the  wind  is  likely  to  deter  the  crows 
from  swooping  upon  chickens  near  by. 

THIEVES: — The  meanest  of  maurauders  is  a  man 
who  would  rob  a  hen-roost. 

A  faithful  bull  dog  will  usually  prevent  losses  by 
thieving. 

Frequent  gun  practice  at  irregular  times,  day  and 
night,  especially  if  the  gunner  gains  the  reputation  of 
being  a  "sure  shot"  will  tend  to  cause  robbers  to  shun 
the  premises. 

Electric  alarms  in  the  hen  houses  and  connecting 
with  the  poultryman's  sleeping  quarters  serve  to  give 
warning  of  unwelcome  visitants  at  night. 

The  Judicious  circulation  of  Information  near  and 
far  as  to  the  installation  of  the  electric  alarms  on  the 
poultry  plant,  their  wonderful  detective  powers  and 
the  skill  of  the  poultryman  in  the  use  of  fire  arms  may 
have  a  restraining  influence  upon  persons  thievishly 
inclined. 

VICES. 

FEATHER  PULLING:  Fowls  sometimes  acquire  the  bad 
habit  of  pecking  at  the  feathers  of  one  or  more  of  their 
number  until  parts  of  the  body  become  naked.  Male 
birds  are  especially  liable  to  have  the  neck  feathers 
pulled  in  this  way  if  the  flock  is  kept  in  close  conflne- 
,  ment  with  lack  of  exercise.  Unbalanced  rations,  lack 
of  green  food,  absence  of  meat  food  and  of  grit  and 
neglect  to  provide  for  the  natural  needs  of  the  fowls 

all  favor  the  forming  %of  this  evil  habit 
10 


274       PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

In  extreme  cases  the  fowls  may  turn  cannibals. 
When  the  pulling  of  a  feather  draws  blood,  the  fowls 
are  set  wild  by  the  sight  and  taste  of  the  red  fluid,  and 
may  peck  the  victim  to  its  death. 

If  the  habit  reaches  this  stage  or  any  of  the  fowls 
of  a  flock  become  confirmed  feather  pullers  they  may 
be  killed  and  used  for  the  table.  To  overcome  or  pre- 
vent this  vice  the  rations  should  be  corrected,  plenty 
of  room  allowed  or  straw  used  as  litter  and  small  grain 
scattered  in  it  to  encourage  natural  exercise 

The  naked  neck  of  a  victim  of  feather  pulling  may 
be  smeared  with  carbolated  vaseline. 

EGG-EATING: — Fowls  do  not  prove  profitable  when 
they  become'  consumers  of  their  own  products.  The 
habit  of  egg-eating  may  be  readily  started  if  a  soft- 
shelled  egg  is  dropped  and  breaks  open  on  the  floor, 
or  if  eggs  are  crushed  by  the  layers  in  the  nests.  Egg 
forcing  foods,  the  use  of  condiments  and  the  lack  of 
crushed  oyster-shells  or  other  supply  of  carbonate  of 
lime  tend  to  the  production  of  eggs  with  soft  shells. 

A  sufficient  number  of  attractive  nests  will  help  to 
prevent  crowding  at  laying  time.  If  the  nests  are  se- 
cluded or  darkened  there  will  be  less  tendency  of  the 
layers  to  croUrd  into  one  or  two  favorite  nesting  places. 
Nests  may  be  made  having  canvas  bottoms  with  a  hole 
in  each  through  which  the  egg,  as  soon  as  laid,  drops 
into  a  space  below  the  nest.  Such  nests  should  be  well 
darkened  and  soft  cloth  or  chaff  should  be  placed  under- 
neath for  the  egg  to  fall  upon. 

Any  fowls  that  become  confirmed  egg-eaters  should 
be  used  for  the  table. 

DRINKING  OR  EATING  FILTH: — Fowls  sometimes  ac- 
quire abnormal  appetites  and  become  addicted  to  drink- 
ing at  sink-drains,  barn-yard  pools  or  stagnant  puddles 
or  devour  excrement,  decaying  flesh,  etc.  Digestive  dis- 
orders and  diseases  are  liable  to  follow. 

In  warm  climates  if  the  fowls  find  a  decomposing 
carcass  of  any  animal  and  feast  upon  it  they  are  very 
likely  to  suffer  from  ptomaine  poisoning,  resulting  in 
the  so  called  "Limber-neck"  and- slow  death. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE      275 

The  fowls  must  be  prevented  from  indulging  in  these 
practices  by  keeping  them  away  from  such  temptations 
or  by  removal  of  the  opportunities  for  satisfying  their 
abnormal  cravings. 

Proper  feeding  and  good  management  will  usually 
save  the  flocks  from  acquiring  the  vices  which  fre- 
quently result  because  of  carelessness  or  neglect  on 
the  part  of  the  poultry-keeper. 

LEAKS    AND    WASTES 

Management  which  allows  of  leaks  and  wastes  on 
the  poultry  plant  is  faulty. 

Capital  may  easily  be  wasted  by  placing  the  poultry 
plant  in  a  location  unfavorable  to  the  fowls  or  un- 
suited  to  the  conduct  of  the  business. 

Money  invested  in  buildings,  which  are  not  adapted 
to  the  keeping  of  fowls  or  are  erected  upon  unsuitable 
sites  is  worse  than  wasted  because  the  use  of  such  struc- 
tures entails  continuing  waste  of  effort. 

In  some  cases  the  buying  of  exhibition  stock,  at 
fancy  prices,  for  breeding  purposes,  is  equivalent  to 
throwing  away  money. 

Food  is  easily  wasted  by  feeding  mashes  on  the 
ground  or  in  open  troughs  from  which  it  may  be  scat- 
tered and  lost  Wet  mashes  fed  in  excess,  and  the  sur- 
plus left  to  ferment,  will  entail  loss  and  may  become 
a  cause  of  disorder  or  disease. 

Feeding  rations,  which  are  unbalanced,  especially  if 
these  contain  an  excess  of  costly  protein  feed-stuff,  is 
wasteful. 

Allowing  nourishing  products  of  the  farm  to  go  un- 
used or  failing  to  grow  food  crops  on  the  poultry  plant 
when  such  can  be  produced  economically  and  then  buy- 
ing feed-stuffs  for  cash  to  make  up  the  rations  is  mis- 
management. Compelling  the  fowls  to  keep  up  their 
body  temperature  by  consuming  additional  food  be- 
cause of  failure  to  provide  comfortable  shelter  does 
not  help  to  increase  the  profitable  productions  of  the 
poultry  farm. 


276      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY   CULTURE 


An  enormous  waste  of  life  among  fowls  results  from 
bad  management,  neglect,  accidents,  disorders,  diseases, 
parasites  and  enemies. 

By  careful  control  and  good  management  many  of 
the  destructive  conditions  can  be  corrected  and  large 
losses,  thereby,  prevented. 

BY-PRODUCTS 

It  is  an  important  part  of  the  management  of  the 
poultry  business  to  save  and  utilize  or  sell  the  by-pro- 
ducts. 

FEATHERS: — At  the  time  of  picking  the  fowls  the 
feathers  should  be  sorted,  the  soft  feathers  being  kept 
separate  from  the  quill  feathers. 

Feathers  which  are  dry-picked  may  be  spread  upon 
the  attic  floor  of  a  dwelling  house  or  in  a  loft  that  is 
not  dusty  and  there  left  to  cure. 

The  feathers  may  be  used  in  making  pillows,  etc.,  for 
the  home  or  may  be  sold  to  neighbors  or  to  dealers. 

If  there  are  large  quantities)  of  feathers  to  be  dried 
a  special  room  should  be  provided  for  the  purpose. 
The  feathers  spread  on  drying  screens  or  frames  cov- 
ered with  fine  wire  netting  may  be  thoroughly  dried 
and  cured  by  means  of  steam  heat. 

The  white  feathers  sell  at  the  highest  prices.  On  a 
large  plant  the  feathers  are  expected  to  sell  for  a  sum 
sufficient  to  pay  for  the  killing  and  picking  of  the 
fowls. 

Any  feathers  not  used  or  sold  should  go  into  the 
compost  heap. 

BLOOD  AND  OFFAL: — In  killing  the  fowls  for  the  table 
or  for  market  the  blood  should  be  saved.  It  is  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  may  be  used  in  a  mash  of  meal,  middlings, 
etc.,  to  help  balance  the  ration  in  the  place  of  expensive 
beef  scraps.  If  not  used  to  feed  the  fowls  it  may  at 
least  be  utilized  as  a  fertilizer.  It,  together  with  the 
offal,  may  be  mingled  with  dry  soil,  kept  from  wetness 
and  used  in  the  garden.  If  there  is  no  other  way  of 
disposing  of  these  parts  they  may  be  added  to  the  com- 
post heap. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      277 

The  heads  and  shanks  may  be  chopped  fine  or  cooked 
and  used  to  feed  the  fowls. 

The  empty  egg  shells  should  he  dried,  crushed  and 
returned  to  the  fowls. 

DROPPINGS: — The  excrement  of  fowls  is  too  often 
neglected  or  wasted  and  sometimes  becomes  a  source  of 
danger  to  the  health  of  the  birds. 

Poultry  droppings  if  kept  clear  of  all  litter,  soil, 
feathers,  etc.,  and  properly  protected  from  wetness,  can 
be  sold  to  tanners  in  some  localities,  at  a  price  that 
pays  for  the  extra  care  taken  to  preserve  them. 

Suburban  gardeners  will  oftimes  pay  well  for  poul- 
try manure  that  has  been  carefully  kept  from  decom- 
posing. 

On  a  poultry  farm  where  crops  are  grown  the  drop- 
pings should  be  carefully  saved  for  use  in  the  garden, 
orchard,  tillage  fields,  or  on  the  lawn  or  meadows. 

Mingling  dry  loam  with  the  droppings  and  pro- 
tecting them  from  wetting  will  prevent  the  loss  of  their 
valuable  nitrogenous  elements.  Wetting  the  excrement 
induces  decomposition  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
ammonia  gas  which,  escaping,  causes  the  loss  of  nitrogen 
and  the  fouling  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  hen  house. 
Mingling  lime  or  wood  ashes  with  the  moist  droppings 
hastens  their  decomposition  and  should  not  be  prac- 
ticed. 

The  value  of  the  fertilizing  elements  in  poultry  man- 
ure varies  somewhat  according  to  the  food  consumed 
and  the  products  being  made  by  the  fowls.  Growing 
chickens  use  much  of  the  valuable  constituents  of  the 
food  in  ..making  flesh  and  bones  an^  laying  hens  draw 
upon  the  important  ingredients  for  making  eggs.  Ma- 
ture stock  and  fattening  fowls  leave  more  of  the  val- 
uable fertilizing  ingredients  to  pass  into  the  excrement. 

The  value  of  the  manure  of  a  mature  fowl  Is  esti- 
mated to  average  about  fifteen  cents  yearly. 
11 


278      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

The  following  table  states  the  average  of  several 
analyses  of  poultry  droppings. 

Fresh  Manure  of  Fowls. 

Pounds  in  100  Value 

Water 57.00 

Nitrogen 1.15  @  15c  per  Ib.    $  .17 

Phosphoric  acid 96  @    7c  per  Ib.        .07 

Potash 39  @  4^c  per  Ib.      .02 

Poultry  manure  is  specially  valuable  as  a  fertilizer 
for  grass  and  forage  crops,  for  Indian  corn,  cabbage, 
cucumbers,  garden  vegetables  and  fruit  trees. 

If  bone  meal  or  phosphate  rock  and  wood  ashes  are 
also  used  for  the  crops  the  manuring  is  made  complete. 

THE   COMPOST   HEAP 

In  some  convenient,  secluded,  well  drained  &pot  on 
the  poultry  plant  a  compost 'heap  should  be  started. 
Several  loads  of  loam  are  brought  to  the  place  and  a 
foundation  made  by  spreading  the  soil  in  a  bed  eight 
inches  deep,  four  or  five  feet  wide  and  eight  or  ten  feet 
in  length.  The  central  portion  may  be  slightly  hollowed. 

On  this  mellow  loam  can  be  thrown  offal,  bodies  of 
fowls  that  die  (if  not  of  contagious  disease),  carcasses 
of  any  animals,  wastes  of  the  household  not  otherwise 
cared  for,  cleanings  of  sink  drains,  contents  of  cess 
pools  and  any  vegetable  refuse  of  the  garden  or  farm. 
Whenever  such  materials  are  added  to  the  compost  heap 
loam  is  shovelled  over  the  same  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches.  A  pile  of  loam  is  kept  at  hand  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

If  convenient  the  soapy  water  from  the  house  laun- 
dry is  poured  upon  the  compost  heap  weekly. 

If  wood  ashes  are  added  to  the  heap  decomposition 
will  be  hastened  and  an  ample  covering  of  loam  should 
be  kept  upon  the  mass  to  absorb  all  odors  and  retain 
the  fertilizing  elements. 

After  a  year  or  more  the  wholeheap  should  be  shov- 
elled over  from  end  to  end.  The  mass -will  have  be- 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      279 

come  thoroughly  disintegrated  and  fitted  for  use  as 
a  top-dressing  for  grass  land  or  for  fertilizing  the  gar- 
den. Any  substances  not  sufficiently  decomposed  can 
be  thrown  into  the  next  compost  heap.  This  is  a  simple, 
cleanly  method  of  promptly  and  effectively  disposing  of 
things  that  might  otherwise  become  offensive.  It  pre- 
vents wastes  and  saves  fertilizing  materials  which  will 
help  to  produce  crops  for  feeding  the  fowls  or  for  other 
purposes. 

ECONOMY  OF  OPERATION 

The  poultryman  who  keeps  accurate  records  of  the 
amount  of  feed  and  labor  involved  in  operating  his 
poultry  plant,  is  able  after  a  time  to  figure  very  closely 
the  cost  of  each  of  these  items  per  egg  produced,  per 
pound  of  broiler,  roaster  or  capon  fitted  for  market, 
per  pullet  raised  to  laying  age  or  per  head  of  fowl  for 
a  year's  keeping. 

Comparing  the  cost  with  the  price  obtained  or  the 
income  returned  in  any  one  of  the  lines  of  production, 
he  has  a  basis  for  determining  which  branch  of  his 
business  is  most  profitable  and  worfhy  of  enlargment. 

By  means  of  his  study  of  these  problems  of  produc- 
tion he  comes  to  realize  that  the  ordinary  methods  of 
caring  for  poultry  are  not  economical  but  exceedingly 
expensive. 

The  next  step,  naturally,  is  to  endeavor  to  improve 
on  the  methods  in  use.  Experiments  are  tried  and 
new  plans  are  tested.  Economies  are  practiced  which, 
while  not  lessening  effectiveness,  do  reduce  expenses. 

Other  poultrymen,  hearing  of  the  new  methods  test 
them  under  their  conditions  and  perhaps  modify  them 
to  some  extent. 

In  this  way  progress  in  management  has  been  ac- 
complished which  has  made  the  poultry  business  in- 
creasingly profitable  and  satisfactory. 

On  numerous  poultry  plants  the  laborious  lugging 
of  water  in  buckets  to  supply  the  drinking  fountains 
has  given  way  to  a  system  of  piping  which  conducts 


280      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

water  by  gravitation  from  an  elevated  source  of  supply 
to  each  pen  or  flock  of  fowls. 

On  some  plants  the  carrying  of  feed  in  pails  has  been 
abandoned  and  a  car  running  by  a  trolley  conveys  the 
supply  of  food  from  pen  to  pen  of  fowls.  The  mixing 
and  feeding  of  wet  mashes  daily  has  given  place,  on 
more  than  a  few  farms,  to  the  plan  of  feeding  dry  feed 
stuffs  in  hoppers  which  are  filled  once  or  twice  a  week. 

Instead  of  opening  and  closing  hen  house  doors 
hinged  to  open  only  one  way  the  attendant  pushes  his 
way  through  doors  hung  on  double  hinges  that  close 
automatically. 

The  labor  of  attending  the  fowls  is  further  reduced 
by  keeping  them  in  open-front  houses.  The  scattering 
of  fine  grains  in  the  straw  litter  is  done  from  the  out- 
side of  the  house  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire  netting 
covering  the  fronts  of  the  pens.  Hoppers  placed  in 
the  front  of  the  houses  are  supplied  with  feed  stuffs, 
oyster  shells,  grit  and  granulated  charcoal  from  the 
outside  of  the  buildings.  Next  boxes  placed  at  the 
front  or  rear  of  the  house  open  to  the  outside  for  the 
removal  of  the  eggs.  Curtains  for  the  front  of  the  pens 
and  for  the  roosting  compartments  are  operated  by 
cords  running  through  pulleys  to  the  outside  of  the 
house. 

By  building  open-front  houses  twenty  feet  instead 
of  ten  feet  wide  it  has  been  found  practicable  to  place 
the  yards  at  the  rear  of  the  buildings  and  leave  the 
fronts  free  of  fences  so  that  in  cleaning  out  the  pens, 
renewing  the  litter  and  filling  the  hoppers  convenient 
use  may  be  made  of  wagons  and  horses. 

By  the  colony  plan  of  keeping  fowls  and  growing 
chickens,  yards  are  dispensed  with,  and  the  labor  of 
feeding,  collecting  eggs,  etc.,  is  lightened  by  using 
horse  power. 

Sufficient  study  and  thought  applied  to  the  problems 
of  poultry  management  will  always  result  in  the  saving 
of  labor  and  the  economizing  of  other  expenses. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      281 

COMBINING    GAININGS 

Increased  economy  and  effectiveness  in  management 
are  frequently  gained  by  carrying  on  poultry  keeping 
in  combination  with  other  occupations. 

A  small  flock  of  fowls,  fed  mainly  on  the  wastes  of 
the  household  and  cared  for  by  some  member  of  the 
family  who  can  spare  time  for  the  work  without  neglect 
of  regular  duties,  is  kept  at  a  small  expense. 

A  dairy  farm,  selling  cream  or  butter,  has  quantities 
of  skim  milk  or  butter-milk  to  be  disposed  of  daily. 
Poultry  will  make  good  use  of  such  by-products  by 
converting  them  with  other  foods  into  saleable  eggs 
and  chickens. 

Uniting  poultry  keeping  with  the  culture  of  orchard 
fruits  provides  ideal  conditions  of  range,  shade,  etc., 
for  the  fowls,  which  utilize  some  of  the  waste  fruit  and 
aid  in  subduing  insect  enemies  of  the  trees. 

Combining  poultry  culture  with  small  fruit  growing 
and  gardening  calls  for  the  keeping  of  the  chickens  in 
yards  or  on  ranges  away  from  the  growing  and  ripen- 
ing crops  at  certain  seasons  but  at  times  they  help  to 
dispose  of  the  by-products  or  surplus  crops  and  des- 
troy many  injurious  insects. 

In  joining  poultry  keeping  to  bee  culture  there  may 
be  grown  crops,  such  as  peas,  beans,  buckwheat  and 
clovers  which  will  yield  nectar  for  the  bees  by  their 
blossoms,  green  foods  and  seeds  for  poultry  food  and 
hay  or  straw  for  littering  the  hen  houses  or  feeding 
of  the  farm  stock. 

Poultry,  when  made  a  part  of  the  live  stock  of  the 
farm  can  utilize  many  of  its  crops  and  by-products  to 
advantage. 

If  the  farm  is  devoted  mainly  to  poultry  keeping  the 
manager  should  consider  carefully  what  crops  he  can 
grow  to  advantage  and  whether  the  cost  of  their  pro- 
duction will  allow  of  their  successful  selling  in  the 
market  or  more  profitable  use  at  home.  In  some  cases 
the  question  will  arise  as  to  whether  a  crop  useful  for 


282      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

feeding  poultry  can  be  grown  more  cheaply  on  the  farm 
than  it  or  a  substitute  can  be  bought  on  the  market. 

There  will  also  be  opportunity  to  decide  as  to  the 
growing  of  such  leguminous  crops  as  field  peas,  cow 
peas,  soya  beans,  clovers,  alfalfa,  etc.,  to  take  the  place 
at  least  in  part,  ef  beef  scraps  or  other  expensive  pro- 
tein feed  stuffs  to  be  used  in  balancing  the  starchy 
grain  feed  stuffs. 

The  poultryman  should  consider  the  crops  demanded 
by  his  available  markets  and  how  their  culture  will 
combine  with  poultry  keeping. 

He  will  further  study  their  adaptations  to  his  land, 
climate,  the  resources  and  equipment  of  his  farm  and 
his  own  capabilities  in  managing  the  culture  of  such 
crops  in  conjunction  with  poultry  farming. 

Where  the  flocks  can  have  free  range  or  yards  of 
very  large  size  it  is  desirable  that  a  part  of  the  land 
should  be  in  grass,  clover,  alfalfa,  growing  grain  or 
other  crops  suitable  for  supplying  green  food  to  the 
fowls. 

If  shade  is  not  provided  by  trees,  it  should  be  fur- 
nished in  mid-summer  by  crops  or  plants  such  as  Indian 
corn,  broom  corn,  sorghum,  Kafir "  corn,  sunflowers, 
hemp,  castor  beans,  pole  beans,  asparagus,  raspberry  or 
blackberry  bushes,  grape  vines,  etc. 

ROTATION     OF    CROPS     AND    POULTRY 

Suggestions  have  already  been  given  in  Chapter  IX 
for  the  rotation  of  crops  in  cultivating  single,  double 
and  triple  yards. 

It  is  practicable  to  arrange  a  rotation  of  crops  and 
poultry  on  the  general  farm. 

The  flocks  are  colonized  on  successive  parts  of  the 
farm  in  rotation  with  the  regular  crops. 

For  the  sake  of  illustration  suppose  the  chief  crops 
grown  on  the  farm  are  grain,  Indian  corn,  grass  and 
clover  and  potatoes.  Suppose  further  that  the  farm 
contains  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  land,  ten  acres 
being  allowed  for  the  farmstead,  orchards,  gardens  and 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      283 

woodland.  The  remaining  area  of  one  hundred  and 
forty  acres  is  divided  into  seven  equal  fields  of  twenty 
acres  each,  designated  as  Fields  A,  B,  C,  &c. 

Following  is  a  sample  arrangement  of  the  succession 
of  crops  and  poultry  for  the  different  divisions  of  the 
farm  during  a  course  of  seven  years. 


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This  sample  rotation  is  simply  a  form  to  show  the 
method  of  managing  the  fields  from  year  to  year.  In 
practice  the  arrangement  is  made  to  accommodate  the 


284       PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

local  conditions  and  the  purpose  and  convenience  of 
the  manager. 

At  least  one  leguminous  crop  should  be  included  in 
the  course  of  the  rotation.  For  instance,  in  the  case 
just  given,  clover  may  be  grown  with  the  grass  or  in 
some  localities  alfalfa  may  take  the  place  of  the  grass. 
After  cropping  grass  three  years  in  succession  the  poul- 
try flocks  are  colonized  upon  the  grass.  'If  it  suits  the 
manager  to  grow  less  grass  and  more  wheat  or  other 
grain  he  may  crop  two  years'  grass  and  grow  two  years' 
grain,  sowing  grass  seed  with  the  second  sowing  of 
grain.  If  more  corn  is  wanted  this  crop  may  have  two 
years  of  the  seven  in  each  field  and  grass  or  grain  be 
left  out  one  year.  Instead  of  growing  twenty  acres  of 
potatoes  each  year  the  manager  may  prefer  to  substi- 
tute root  crops,  cabbages  and  other  vegetable  crops  for 
tha  potatoes  or  a  part  of  them. 

Using  colony  houses,  each  to  accommodate  fifty  fowls 
and  placing  them  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
apart  eacy  way,  forty  houses  on  twenty  acres,  will 
provide  for  two  thousand  fowls. 

The  colony  houses  may  be  placed  upon  runners  made 
of  timber  four  inches  by  six  inches  placed  edgewise 
under  the  sills  and  extending  about  one  foot  beyond  the 
sides  of  the  house.  The  projecting  ends  of  the  run- 
ners may  be  rounded  underneath  like  sled  runners  so 
that  ihey  will  slip  forward  readily  over  the  ground. 

Another  plan  is  to  place  the  houses  upon  axles  sup- 
ported by  small  thick  wheels  or  a  low  truck  may  be 
used,  each  house  being  placed  upon  it,  in  turn,  for  mov- 
ing to  a  new  location. 

If  the  climate  should  be  so  severe  in  winter  as  to 
prevent  adopting  the  colonizing  system  in  the  fields 
throughout  the  year,  the  houses  may  be  brought  close 
together  near  the  farmstead  or  where  they  will  have  the 
benefit  of  natural  or  artificial  shelter  and  where  it  will 
be  convenient  to  care  for  their  inmates. 

SPECIAL  MANAGEMENT 

This  is  decidedly  an  age  of  specializing  in  business. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      285 

The  poultry  industry  readily  lends  itself  to  specializa- 
tion. 

While  it  may  not  be  advisable  to  specialize  too  close- 
ly in  this  occupation  it  is  oftimes  desirable  to  have 
one  or  two  leading  lines  of  production  and  manage  the 
business  so  that  everything  shall  contribute  to  the  greatest 
success  and  profit  of  these  specialties. 

This  plan  may  be  undertaken  after  the  poultryman 
by  study  and  considerable  practice,  has  acquired  skill 
in  general  poultry  management  and  has  determined  by 
experience  what  particular  lines  of  poultry  keeping  are 
most  promising  of  profit  under  his  conditions. 

By  the  concentration  of  means  and  effort  upon  the 
production  of  one  or  two  specialties  there  should  result 
great  improvement  in  quality  and  increase  in  quantity 
of  production. 

An  especially  fine  product  offered  in  considerable 
quantity  and  supplied  regularly  will  usually  insure 
prompt  sales  at  remunerative  prices. 

AN  EGG   FARM 

A  favorite  specialty  of  poultry  keepers  is  egg  pro- 
duction for  market. 

In  a  locality  where  the  climatic  conditions  and  ab- 
sence of  enemies  permit  the  fowls  to  live  on  free  range 
throughout  the  year,  the  colony  plan  of  management  may 
be  followed.  If  the  poultryman  prefers  not  to  raise 
his  laying  stock  he  can  purchase  well  grown  pullets 
each  fall.  These  may  be  disposed  of  alive  or  as  dressed 
fowl  at  the  end  of  the  laying  season  or  before  next 
year's  supply  of  pullets  is  purchased.  Another  plan  is 
to  keep  the  fowls  through  two  .laying  seasons,  purchas- 
ing pullets  yearly  for  the  renewal  of  half  the  flocks. 

The  egg-producers  are  kept,  without  male  birds,  in 
flocks  of  thirty  to  sixty  head  in  portable  houses. 

A  horse  or  pair  of  horses  and  wagon  are  used  in 
carrying  feed  supplies,  collecting  eggs,  etc. 

The  labor  expense  in  caring  for  the  scattered  flocks 
is  somewhat  large  but  if  drinking  water  is  constantly 


286      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

supplied  by  natural  streams  or  by  a  system  of  piping 
and  the  feed  is  principally  furnished  in  large  hoppers 
the  necessary  work  is  minimized. 

If  the  poultryman  prefers  to  raise  his  laying  stock 
he  uses  the  eggs  of  his  best  stock  laid  during  the  second 
year.  He  must  of  course  have  a  suitable  equipment  of 
incubators  and  brooder  houses. 

In  conducting  an  egg  farm  in  a  location  having  a 
severe  winter  climate  another  method  may  be  followed. 
Long  houses,  about  twenty  feet  wide,  the  fronts  partly 
open  have  been  very  successfully  used  by  the  poultry 
specialists  of  the  Maine  Experiment  Station.  The  pens 
may  be  twenty  feet  wide,  separated  by  partitions  of 
boards  or  canvas.  One  open  space  is  provided  for  each 
pen  front,  extending  down  from  the  plate  two  and  one- 
half  or  three  feet  and  along  the  front  about  ten  feet. 

A  curtain  or  frame  of  burlap  or  duck  is  provided  for 
protecting  the  open  space  in  case  of  storm  that  would 
drive  rain  or  snow  into  the  house.  Another  frame 
covered  with  cloth  is  hinged  at  the  top  in  front  of  the 
roosting  place,  which  is  in  the  back  part  of  the  pen. 
In  very  severe  weather  the  frame  is  let  down  to  protect 
the  fowls  upon  the  perches. 

The  yards  for  summer  use  are  arranged  at  the 
rear  of  the  long  laying  houses.  The  fowls  are  kept  in 
the  houses  during  the  winter.  Dry  straw  is  used  to 
litter  the  floors  and  feeding  is  mainly  done  by  means 
of  large  hoppers. 

There  is  a  door  in  the  front  of  each  pen  and  a  plat- 
form walk  runs  the  length  of  the  house  at  the  front, 
on  the  outside. 

Horses  and  wagons  can  be  driven  close  to  the 'front 
of  the  houses  in  cleaning  out  the  pens  and  bringing  fresh 
supplies  of  litter. 

Doors  on  double  hinges  connect  from  pen  to  pen 
through  the  middle  of  the  house  and  feed  supplies  are 
conveyed  by  a  car  running  upon  an  overhead  trolley. 
Flocks  of  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  have  laid  better  during 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      287 

winter  in  such  houses  than  in  houses  with  closed  fronts 
and  glass  windows. 

HATCHING    CHICKS    TO    SELL 

When  a  poultryman  becomes  very  skilful  and  suc- 
cessful in  the  operating  of  incubators  and  is  located 
where  he  can  easily  send  newly  hatched  chicks  to  cus- 
tomers it  is  possible  to  develop  a  profitable  trade  in  this 
line  during  a  portion  of  the  year. 

There  are  many  people  who  wish  to  keep  poultry  but 
have  not  the  facilities,  the  time,  the  inclination  or  per- 
haps the  experience  necessary  to  properly  hatch  chicks 
for  themselves.  Such  persons  will  gladly  pay  a  good 
price  for  the  chicks  nicely  hatched  and  safely  delivered 
to  them. 

Chicks  of  one  or  two  days  old  are  readily  sent  by 
express  or  otherwise,  even  long  distances. 

The  expert  incubator  operator  who  hatches  healthy, 
lively  chicks  of  a  desirable  standard  breed  of  fowls 
and  guarantees  safe  arrival  of  the  chicks  at  their  des- 
tination should  find  this  specialty  remunerative. 

BBOILEES    FOB   MABKET 

The  poultryman  who  is  expert  in  both  hatching  and 
brooding  chicks,  has  a  plant  well  equipped  for  both 
operations  and  is  located  within  easy  reach  of  a  large 
city  may  find  it  advantageous  to  produce  broilers. 

Squab  broilers,  so  called,  are  much  in  demand  to 
supply  high  class  hotels,  restaurants  and  club  houses 
in  the  winter  time. 

These  chicks  are  kept  in  brooder  houses  and  forced 
to  rapid  growth  for  eight  to  ten  weeks  and  marketed 
weighing  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  to  the  pair, 
at  good  prices. 

The  American  varieties  of  pure  bred  poultry  produce 
excellent  broiler  chicks.  The  poultryman  should  pos- 
sess a  good  strain  of  winter  layers  so  as  to  have  a  cer- 
tain supply  of  good  eggs  for  hatching  from  November  to 
February. 


288      PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE 

The  chicks  are  kept  in  rather  restricted  quarters  and 
fed  all  the  food  they  can  utilize  without  endangering 
health.  A  pen  six  feet  by  three  feet  will  accommodate 
thirty  chicks  nicely  during  their  two  months  of  growth. 

Chaff  or  cut  hay  litter  is  scattered  in  the  runs  and 
the  chicks  are  managed  practically  the  same  as  brood- 
er chicks  that  are  to  be  grown  to  maturity. 

This  branch  of  poultry  keeping  may  readily  be  added 
to  the  regular  business  because  it  is  conducted  in  the 
winter  season  and  without  great  increase  in  expense 
for  labor. 

Following  this  season  there  is  a  demand  for  spring 
broilers  which  continues  through  the  spring  and  summer 
even  into  the  autumn.  These  chicks  are  grown  until 
they  weigh  one  and  one-half  to  two  pounds  apiece. 

Frequently  the  poultryman  prefers  to  raise  his  pullot 
chicks  to  maturity  but  disposes  of  the  cockerels  as 

SOFT    ROASTERS    AND    CAPONS 

A  good  business  may  be  done  by  hatching  chicks 
late  in  the  summer,  brooding  in  autumn,  growing 
through  the  winter  and  selling  them  as  plump  roasters 
in  spring. 

Good  eggs  for  hatching  are  liable  to  be  somewhat 
scarce  in  the  fall,  incubating  is  more  uncertain  than  la 
the  spring  and  brooding  during  the  months  preceding 
winter  has  its  difficulties  but  with  suitable  equipment 
and  good  management  the  obstacles  can  all  be  overcome 
and  ver$  satisfactory  sales  made  in  spring  when  there 
is  practically  no  competition  in  the  market  for  this 
class  of  goods. 

The  cockerel  chicks  are  capontzed  at  about  three 
months  age  and  these  with  the  plump  pullets  taken 
when  about  ready  to  lay,  make  the  finest  of  soft  roasters. 
The  prices  obtained  for  these  birds  in  city  markets  are 
usually  very  satisfactory. 

Light  Brahmas  and  White  Plymouth  Rocks  are  fav- 
orite varieties  of  fowl  for  this  kind  of  poultry  farming. 

Cheap  colony  houses  are  used  by  some  poultry  farm- 
ers who  follow  this  line  of  production. 


PROGRESSIVE   POULTRY    CULTURE      289 

The  brooder  houses  of  poultry  farms  where  this  bus- 
iness is  pursued  year  after  year,  are  carefully  cleaned 
out  early  in  summer  or  before  summer  begins  and  left 
open  to  the  sunshine  and  circulation  of  fresh  air  for 
several  months  to  keep  the  quarters  healthy  and  free 
from  all  injurious  germs. 

During  the  winter    months  the  birds  are  fed  from 
hoppers  mainly  but  some  small  grain  may  be  scattered 
daily    in   the    straw    litter    covering   the   floors   of   the 
houses. 

Irfdian  corn  and  beef  scaps  are  the  chief  feed  stuffs 
used  in  the  rations  balanced  for  growth. 

The  capons  and  pullets  are  quiet  fowls,  live  and 
thrive  in  rather  close  quarters  and  make  first  class 
roasters. 

SPECIALTY    BREEDING 

The  finest  work  and  study  in  poultry  culture  is 
done  by  men  and  women  who  devote  their  energies  to 
improving  pure  breeds  or  developing  improved  varieties 
df  poultry. 

There  are  abundant  opportunities  for  the  choice  of  a 
special  line  of  this  work. 

One  may  breed  for  fine  quality  with  the  purpose  to 
sell  breeding  stock  excelling  in  egg  production,  flesh 
growth,  fine  plumage,  symmetrical  form,  beautiful  ap- 
pendages or  any  other  desirable  characteristic. 

There  is  a  large  field  for  enthusiastic  endeavor  in 
the  breeding  of  the  diminutive  bantam  varieties  of 
poultry. 

Whatever  line  of  poultry  culture  is  chosen,  success 
in  specialization  will  depend  largely  upon  the  earnest, 
effective  personal  attention  given  to  its  management  by 
the  poultryman. 

Intense  study  and  skilful  management  must  win  ex- 
cellent results  for  the  poultry  keeper  whose  character 
exemplifies  the  truth  of  the  words, 


'Gentleness  is  Strength  Under  Control.' 


INDEX 


ABDOMINAL  dropsy      .       .  146 

Choking      

150 

Accounts  and  records,  keep- 
ing of     .       .       .       .14 
Advertisements,  preparation 

Cholera       
Cleanliness         . 
Climate       

150 
83 
37 

of     259 
Size  of  258 
Advertising       .       .       .    14,  255 
Breeding  and  fancj*  stock  256 
In  periodicals     .       .       .  257 

Cochins                             .      6( 
Partridge      .       .       . 
Cockerel  cage    . 
Cockerels,  culling  the     . 
Colds   

>,  98 
45 
209 
93 
150 

Market  products        .       .  255 
Seasonable  .       .        .       .258 
Anaemia     146 
Anconas      .....  266 

Colonizing  
Colony  coops    . 
Houses  

93 
95 
95 
175 

Apoplexy                                    147 

Q78 

Asthenia      147 
Atavism       .        .        .32,  33,  36,  43 
Atrophy  of  the  liver        .       .  147 

BIOLOGY                              .    13 

Congestion  of  the  lungs  . 
Of  the  liver. 
Constipation      . 
Consumption     . 
Cooling 

151 
151 
152 
152 
180 

Black  Spanish    ....  266 
Blood  and  offal  .       .       .       .276 
Brahmas      .        .        .        60,  92,  98 
Dark       .        .        .       .    45,  267 
Light     .    86,  100,  101,  267,  288 

Coop,  the  chick 
Training      . 
Co-relation         . 
Corns   
Coyotes       .... 

74 
228 
34 
152 
272 

Break  -down       *                        149 
Breeding,  principles  of  .      13,  32 
Stock                                      167 

Cramming  .       .       ... 
Machines     .       .       ' 

168 
170 

Breeds,  selecting  the      .       .  266 
Brooding,  specialty  .       .       .289 
Broken  bone      .       .       .       .149 
Broilers       168 
For  market  .       .        .        .287 
Spring   .       .        .        .    91,  165 

Crop  bound       . 
Cross-breeding. 
Culling        
Cultivation  and  cropping 

DEPRAVED  appetite 
Diarrhea      ....  134, 

152 
43 
225 
220 

153 
IV* 

Squab    ....  165,  287 
Brooder  houses 
.  191,  192,  193.  208,  289 
Brooders      .       .     '  .       .       .79 
Doubledecker     ...    89 
Starting  the  .       .       .       .80 
Brooding     .       .       .       .           69 

Diphtheria         . 
Dipping              . 
Dissection,  description  of 
Dogs     .               . 
Drainage             .       .       .  187, 
Dressing              . 

154 
1&5 
109 
271 

198 
181 

Artificial  methods  of  .       .78 
Beginning   .       .       .       .71 

Dusting               . 

134 
154 

Natural  method  of     .       .73 
Bronchitis                                    149 

ECZEMA      

154 

Buildings,  situation  of     .       .  190 
Bumble  foot       .       .       .       .149 

Eggs     .                             .  164, 
Before  incubating 
Eating  

174 
50 
074 

CANKER     149 
Caponizing        .       .       .100,  106 
Instruments        .       .       .101 
Operation  of       ...  102 
Capons        ....    100-165 
Feeding  the        .       .       .  104 
Catarrh                 .                          149 

Farm     
Fertility  of  .       .       . 
Incubating  .       .        .       . 
Tester  
Embryo,  development  of 
Enteritis      

285 
48 
52 
97 
105 
154 

Cats      .       .       .       .'      .       .271 

Environment     . 
Eversion 

28 
155 

Chemistry  13 
Chickens,  growing  .       .        .87 

Exercise      
Exhibiting 

38 

000 

Chicks,  chilling  the  .        .       .    73 
Feeding       ....    83 
Hatching  of         ...  287 
Rearing,  after  brooding  .    91 
Squab-broiler                         87 

Exhibition  pen  .... 

FATTENING  crate    . 
Fatty  degeneration  . 
Feathers 

228 

166 
155 
076 

Weaning  the       ...    92 

Feather  pulling 

273 

292 


INDEX 


Feed  and  feeding,  conditions 

KEYING                                  261 

of     

Feeding  and  finishing    . 
Feed  house        .... 

116 

90 
207 

LANGSHANS      .       .       .       .98 
Leaks  and  wastes      .       .       .  275 

Feed  hoppers    .... 
Feeding,  factors  in  . 

208 
13 

Leg  bands  241 
Leghorns    ,       .       .       .60,  266 

Methods  of  . 

85 

Buff       12 

Scientific  foundation  of   . 
Standards     .... 
Feed-stuffs,  the 
New      

121 
125 
113 
245 

S.  C.  brown  ....    26 
Single  white-comb    .       .    44 
White    87 
Leg  weakness    .       .       .       .156 

Principal  poultry 
Felch  Breeding  Cnart     . 
Felch    IK                        .40 

122 
41 
i  41 

Lice       .        .        .  133,  134,  138,  226 
Life-blood,  the  .       .       .       .107 
Lighting     200 

Fencing      214, 

215 

MANAGEMENT,  methods  of  .  2fi4 

Filth  eating       .... 
Flock,  family     .... 
Farm      ..... 

274 
21 
22 

Marketing  .        .        .14,  162,  167 
Marketing,  system  in      .       .  177 
Mating,  methods  of  .       .       .    44 

Financier's  .       .       .       . 

24 

Minks                                            272 

Fancier's      .... 

24 

Minorcas     .        .        .        .60,  266 

Foods,  the  

84 

Mites    .                          136,  138,  226 

Foods  and  feeding  . 

107 

Moisture      .        .        .        .        .82 

Fowls,  fitting     .... 

14 
*'71 

Mothering,  artificial        .       .    80 

Fumigating        . 
Functions,  exercise  of    . 

136 
30 

NEST  bugs  139 
Nest,  natural      .       .       .       .61 

Frost  bite 

155 

Nutrients     112 

Fryers                                . 

165 

Carbo-hydrate  portion  of  .  113 

Fatty  portion  of  .       .       .  113 

GAMES        

267 

Mineral  portion  of     .       .  112 

Gape-worms      . 

141 

Protein  portion  of      .       .  112 

Gastritis 

155 

Nutriment                                     38 

Gates    

219 

Nutrition     108 

Grading       

43 

OPOSSUMS  272 

Grains  
Gravel  ... 

114 
170 

Orpingtons,  Buff      .       .  119,  184 

Greens         

114 

PACKING   182 

Grits     

114 

Parasites,  external    .       .       .132 

Grubs  114, 

116 

Internal        .       .       .       .141 

Growth,  forcing^of   . 

225 

In  the  oviduct    .        .       .143 

Parks    .                                        °09 

HAMBURGS       .       .       .       . 

266 

Pasting  up  .....  157 

Hatching  appliances 

216 

Peritonitis  157 

Hatching,  artificial   . 

64 

Physics                                      .    13 

Natural  method  of     .    •   . 

59 

Pip        ...                .157 

Hawks  and  crows 

Plucking     179 

Hepatitis     

156 

Plymouth  Rocks     92,  98,  101,  267 

Heredity     ....     45 

71 

Barred   .       .     45,  60,  115,  148 

Housing  and  fencing 

185 

White    .        .        .  100,  137,  288 

Hover,  home-made  . 

88 

Pneumonia         .        .        .        .157 

IN-BREEDING  .... 

39 

Pox       158 
Poisoning  .        .        .        .158,  270 

Incubation  
Artificial       .... 
And  brooding     . 
Errors  during 
Mistakes  before  . 
Successive  stages  of  . 
Incubator  cellar 

46 
64 
14 
70 
69 
53 
207 

Poultry  accounts      .       .       .247 
Poultry  breeding,  factors  in  .    27 
Poultry  yards     ....  209 
Poultryman's  diary  .       .       .  24H 
Prepotency        .       .       .       .33 
Pullets,  feeding  the  .       .       .104 
For  exhibition    .       .       .98 

Incubator,  operating  the 
Room    
Selecting  the 
Indexing  inquiries  . 
Inflamed  oviduct 

66 
65 
65 
262 
156 

For  laying    .        .        .        .98 
Preparing  the      .       .       .98 

RANGES  and  runs    .       .       .209 
Rations,  balancing  the    .    84,  129 

Influences,  co-operation  of  . 

31 

Growing       .        .        .        .129 

Laying  ....          130 

Inheritance        •       .       .       . 

27 

Molting        .       .       .       .131 

JAUNDICE  .... 

156 

Standards  forlavinfif  .       .  128 

Judering 

237 

Standardsformaintenanre  127 

INDEX 


293 


Rats  and  mice    .       .  .269 

Records,  breeding    .       .       .241 

Brooding      .       .        .        .244 

Colony 245 

Egg  laying  .  .  .  241,  242 
Feeding  ....  245 
Incubator  .  .  .  .243 

Sitting 244 

Special 240 

Retail  dealers  ....  175 
Rheumatism  .  .  .  .158 
Rhode  Island  Reds 

.  60,  87,  92,  98,  101,  267 

Roasters 168 

Small 165 

Large 165 

Soft         .        .        .    99,  165,  288 

Capon 288 

Rodents  .  .  .  .  .201 
Round  worms  ....  142 
Roup 159 

SCABBY  legs  .  .  .  .140 
Scalding  .  .  .  .  .180 
Score  cards  ....  233,  235 

Scoring 232 

Scratching  shed  .  .  .203 
Setting  the  sitters  .  .  .62 
Sexes,  separating  the  .  .  92 
Shade  for  yards .  .  .  .220 


Shaping      .       .       .       .       .181 

Shipping 183 

Show,  attention  after  the       .  232 

Care  of  birds  at  .       .       .231 

Fitting  for    .        .        .        .227 

Shipping  to  the  .       .       .230 

Sitting  house     .       .       .       .208 

Sitting  place,  furnishing  the  60,  62 

Skunks 272 

Starting  season  .       .       .       .265 

TABULATING   .       .       .  .261 

Tape -worms      .       .       .  .142 

Temperature     .       .       .  .200 

Thermometers  .       .       .  .208 

Ticks    ......  139 

Transportation  facilities  .  .  189 

Tuberculosis      .       .       .  .160 

VARIATION      .       .       .       .35 
Ventilation         .       .       .82,  198 

Vermin 201 

Vertigo 160 

WATER  fountains    .       .       .209 
Water  supply     .       .       .       .188 

Weasels 272 

Wyandots  .  .  60,  92,  98,  267 
Columbian  .  .  .23,  171 
Silver-penciled  .  .  .45 
White  .  .  75,  87,  91,  126 


w\ 


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Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 


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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


